‘ Penner a ae HZ & 2 anes mete ea yn & mic Oo > etree” ma OC — — <.42, yo eos | fo ae er | | be Wy 2 5 | mie CG em | Oo O & “es fy Ae = ' tsp ' + ee , 7) - FUNERARY URN FROM A ZAPOTECAN TOMB The cylindrical urn is concealed behind the human figure. The dress of the human figure consists of a cape, apron and a widespreading headdress. Over the face is worn a mask. Height, 15% inches. . . : Lit} Bf rays AMERICAN MUSEUM OP NATURAL HISTORY } ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS | OF | MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA | By HERBERT J. SPINDEN FORMERLY ASSISTANT CURATOR, DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY R =e HANDBOOK SERIES No. 3 SECOND AND REVISED EDITION NEW YORK 1922 Be ete. ee alae ce és here 14) ae) & us UN WAQUAaH ae ; | YAOTEIN 1KRUT | TYAAAAANA RUTHLESS Pie R a ee eee eet LL ee. PREFACE 4 | ‘HIS little book is intended as a general commen- tary and explanation of the more important phases of the ancient life and arts of the Indians of Mexico and Central America, and especially of their history. The substance of it is drawn from many sources, for the anthropologist must mould together and harmonize the gross results of several sciences. Archee- ology, ethnology, somatology, and linguistics all make their special contributions and we are only on the threshold of our subject. In the Mexican and Central American field we find the a¢écumulated writings that result from four hundred years of European contact with the Indians and in addition a mass of native documents and monumental inscriptions expressed in several hiero- glyphic systems. The general method of this book will be to take up in order the recognized “horizons” of pre-Columbian history, beginning with the earliest of which we have knowledge. In relation to each horizon we will examine the records and discuss the principal developments in arts, beliefs, and social structures. The introductory chapter is designed to put before the reader such facts as may be necessary for a ready understanding of the discussions and explanations that will follow. The Mexican Hall of the American Museum of Natural History furnishes illustrations of most of the facts given herewith. This Hall contains both originals and casts brought together by various expeditions of the Museum and of other scientific institutions. The principal patrons of science whose names should be mentioned in connection with the upbuilding of these collections are: Willard Brown, Austin Corbin, R. P. Doremus, Anson W. Hard, Archer M. Huntington, 6 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA Morris K. Jesup, James H. Jones, Minor C. Keith, the Duke de Loubat, William Mack, Henry Mar- quand, Dr. William Pepper, A. D. Straus, I. Mel. Strong, Cornelius Vanderbilt, Henry Villard, William C. Whitney. But thanks are also due to innumerable persons who have contributed single specimens and small collections as well as those who have placed in- formation at the disposal of the scientific staff. The principal collectors have been: George Byron Gordon, Ales Hrdli¢éka, Carl Lumholtz, Francis C. Nicholas, Marshall H. Saville, Eduard Seler, Herbert J. Spinden, and John L. Stephens. CONTENTS Geography and Natural Environment. History of European Contact. Languages. Ethnology. Physical Types. CHAPTER I OEE TG To. a a Stratification of Remains. The Cemetery under the Lava. Invention of Agriculture. Archaic Figurines. Ancient Customs. Archaic Pot- tery. Stone Sculptures of the Archaic Period. Extensions of the Archaic Horizon. Local Developments of Archaic Art. Summary. CHAPTER II A CAS A PSC PeAPION, «|S sc clade e Oe Eee Miele a bea Lk Architecture. Massive Sculptural Art. Minor Arts. The Serpent in Mayan Art. The Human Figure. Design, Composition and Per- spective. The Mayan Pantheon. The Mayan Time Counts. Ele- ments of the Day Count. The Conventional Year. The Calendar Round. Mayan Numbers. The True Year. The Long Count. The Lunar Calendar. The Venus Calendar. Hieroglyphs. Codices. Bases of Mayan Chronology. Historical Development of Art. Dated Monu- ments. Books of Chilam Balam. Correlation with Christian Chron- ology. Summary of Mayan History. CHAPTER III Ue RO att. 5) a a ee arr ee Zapotecan Culture. Mitla. Totonacan Culture. The Toltecs. Xochi- calco. San Juan Teotihuacan. Tula. Cholula. The Frontier Cities of the Northwest. Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa. The Chorotegan Culture. Isthmian Gold Work. CHAPTER IV gre Bg el SP er eee ork, a ee ee Mayas and Aztecs compared to Greeks and Romans. The Chichimecas. Aztecan History. Social Organization. The Tecpan or Temple Enclo- sure. The Calendar Stone. Stone of Tizoc. Coatlicue. Mexican Writing. Aztecan Religion. Conceptions of the Universe. Cere- monies. Poetry and Music. Minor Aztecan Arts. The Tarascans. Southern Mexico. Aztecan Influence in Central America. A Cross-SEcTION or NEw WorRLD HisTory................... Ee ° a ee Ee 2k re ene ee OE Sa ENS” ES a a he ee Seer gee ee ee eae PAGE 43 67 139 181 Funerary Urn from a Zapotecan Tomb . MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE. Map of Mexico and Central America showing the Principal Archeological Sites with a Detail Insert of the Valley of Frontispiece Mexico . Facing 438 Diagram of pay as Chronaieay. Facing 228 PLATES. I. a, Village Scene in Arid Mexico; 6, In the Humid Low- lands . 13 II. a, Site of Pueblo Views: fie First Capi a Gussie b, A Spanish Church at the Village of Camotan on the Road to Copan 23 III. a, View of the Island of Flores in Tike Peter: :s The Sacred Cenote at Chichen Itza 28 IV. a, A Guatemalan huzpili; b, Pouches of she Valiente Indians 38 V. a, Zapotecan Girl from ihe State ae Oana 5 Tacantaee Man from Southern Mexico 40 VI. a, Stone Sculptures of the Archaic Paige x Antheae Site under Lava Flow near Mexico City 46 VII. a, Large Archaic Figures found in Graves and offering Evidence of Ancient Customs and Arts; b, Archaic Figures which show a Quality of Caricature or pos- sibly Portraiture 50 VIII Costa Rican Figures of Aechiae TH ponirapted atl those of a Later Time . Ae ees 56 IX. Widely Distributed Female aan, 58 X. Distribution of Archaic Culture ; 61 XI. Distribution of Agriculture in the New Would 62 XII. A General View of the Ceremonial Center of Copan . 66 XIII. a, View of the Plaza at Copan from the Northwestern Cor- ner; 6, View Across the Artificial Acropolisat Copan 68 XIV. A Temple at Hochob showing Elaborate Facade Decora- tions in Stucco... 72 XV. A Sealed Portal Vault in fhe ae of jhe Capernien ee Uxmal 73 XVI. a, Model of the Temple A the CRS seal a ow = Construction; b, Detail of Frieze on the Temple of the Cross 75 XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXT. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXXVI. XXVIII. “XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXII. XXXIT. XXXII. XXXTV. XXXYV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS a, Realistic Designs on Vases from Chama, Guate- mala; b, The Quetzal as represented on a Painted Cylindrical Vase from Copan Stela 13, Piedras Negras a, Top of Stela 1 at Yaxchilan; b, yes ee Detail of Stela 4, Yaxchilan . Scheme of "4 Mayan Calendar as piinehenitéd in the Codex Tro-Cortesianus Typical Mayan Inscription Page 24 Dresden Codex a, Detail of the Dresden Godan being Teolkin used in Divination; 6, Analysis of the above Tzolkin, according to Férstemann Development in Style of Carving at Copan General View of Monte-Alban from the North Detail of Monte Alban showing Wall Foundations and Small Cell-like Rooms Zapotecan Art: Incense Burners, Tenses wien of Portrait Type, Cruciform Tomb with Geo- metric Decoration a, Sculpture of Stone of the Early Pecekinieit Period; b, Jade Tablets pierced for Suspension . Laughing Head of the Totonacs Sates 3 a, An Elaborately Carved Stone Collat: b, A Pal- mate Stone from the State of Vera Crt The Temple at Xochicalco before Restoration Two Views of the Principal Pyramid in the Citadel at Teotihuacan a, Partial View of the Great Pymiia fe Cipla: b, A View at La Quemada Stone Slab from an Ancient Sepulcher in the State of Guerrero a, Fine Carved feeeconial Slab ae - 1 eee Costa Rica; b, Stone Figure from Costa Rica; c, Ceremonial Slab decorated with Monkeys, Mercedes, Costa Rica . a, The Gold Work of the Ancient SiiicAnh: " Cisse: ment of Gold from Costa Rica A Page from the Tribute Roll of Bh tiek ik Page from the Codex Telleriano Remensis PAGE, 10 XX-XIX., pr ee Ot teens MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA PAGE. mid, Mexico City .. B.S Fs Sakae s Plan of the Renee in Mexico Gis XLI. The Calendar Stone of the Aztecs XLII. The Shield Stone at Cuernavaca... .. . XLII. Sculpture representing Coatlicue, the Serpent- Skirted Goddess XLIV. Page from the Tonalamatl Seouon a ine Cotes Borbonicus .. XLV. a, Pictures of Tlaloc, ‘dhe eau ie Faia ae of Ehecatl, the God of Winds, in the Codex Mag- liabecchiano; b, Mexican Genealogical Table on Amatl Paper TEXT FIGURES. The Great Snowstorm of 1447 shown in the Pictographic Record of the Aztecs A Mexican Picture of a Volcanic Biniution Yucatan Deer caught in a Snare The Moan Bird, or Yucatan Owl, ee ee asa Demeneae Spanish Ship in the Aubin Codex ; Cortez arrives with Sword and Cross and Moeicaans bangs him Gold . ig Deb soe Aztecan Canoe. Lienzo de Tlaxcala Design on Modern Huichol Ribbon Woven Pouch of the Huichol Indians . Atzcapotzaleo Destroyed. , Diagram of Culture Strata at Oe ees Teocentli or Mexican Fodder Grass Figurines from the Earliest Culture Horizon in Renion Archaic Figurine from Salvador Types of Eyes of Archaic Figurines Textile Designs painted on Archaic Effigies. Typical Tripod Vessels of the Archaic Period, from Morélee. Mexico Series showing the Modification af a Celt sine a ilene ‘Arwnihet Groundplans of Yaxchilan Temples . Cross-section of Typical Mayan Temple in Boner Sees Mask Panel over Doorway at Xkichmook, Yucatan . Design on Engraved Pot representing a Tiger seated in a Wreathe of Water Lilies. Northern Yucatan . Serpent Head at Bottom of eee Great Pyra- 186 192 194 196 200 206 208 13 16 20 20 22 25 26 30 | 35 44 45 48 51 52 53 54 59 57 70 74 78 81. TEXT FIGURES 11 PAGE. 23. Painted Design on Cylindrical Bowl showing Serpent issuing froma Shell. Salvador .. . ee 24. Mayan Basket represented in Stone Soulbinee Cee eA oe Be 25. Typical Elaborated Serpentsofthe Mayas. . . 83 26. Conventional Serpent of the Mayas used for Dsshicatork Purposes .. . 84 7. Upper Part of Serpent Head aati mato a . Fret Oraaninnt’. . 86 28. Sculptureon FrontofLintelat Yaxchilan. . . . . . 88 29. Types of Human Heads on the Lintelsof Yaxchilan . . . 88 . 30. Sculptureon Upper PartofStelall,Seibal . . . . . = 89 | BENS GS De a Em, | i Serene 2 ff. ky SS PS RB sr Tene. e ADO CE fie sw oe ee et, 88 ne write presden Coder ¢*. . -f6) 2! so. 5 D4 35. The Twenty Day Signs . . <- “Si 36. The Nineteen Month Signs of the May an Y Ens. 3. 37. Barand Dot Numerals ofthe Mayas... . . . . 104 38. Face Numerals found in Mayan Inscriptions. . . . . 106 39. The Normal Forms of the Period Glyphs SS ae ee 40. Face Forms of Period Glyphs . ...... . . 106 41 Representations of the Moon . . Keo aad. 42. The Last Glyph of the Supplementary Beried fe ak oe) ee 43. Hieroglyphs ofthe Four Directions .. nt ee |e - 44. Hieroglyphs containing the Phonetic Element bis 1. ae 45. Mayan Ceremony as represented in the Dresden Codex . . 120 46. The Front Head of the Two-Headed Dragon on Stelz at Piedras Negras showing the Increase in Flamboyant Treatment .. ey Ree ae 47. Grotesque Face on the Back of Stela B, Conan tae 128 48. Jaguar in Dresden Codex with a Water Lily Stacked to Forehead... LS A ae St ket ae 49. Late Sculpture from Chicken Baa i aire = eae Cee 50. Comparison of Mayan and Zapotecan Serpent Heada oA 141 51. Barand Dot Numerals combed with poe, on Zapote can Monuments. . see's sinks . 142 52. Detail of Wall Construction at Mitla par neta hoy eae Tn ene On RATER ois tw we we ope 54. The Eyes of Totonacan Figurines ._. ae Leek 55. Jointed Doll of Clay from San Juan Teotihuadan Ms . 1162 56. Pottery Plates from Cholula with Decorations in Sey eral Colors ie ee, id We ke ips ce oY a a ge Oe 12 of. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. (ge 72. 73. 74, 75. 76. ee 78. To. 80. $l. 82. 83. 84. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA PAGE. Vessel with “Cloisonné”’ Decoration in Heavy Pigments . 167 The Turtle Motive as developed in Negative Painting with Wax at Totoate, Jalisco”... ’ 168 Jaguar Head on Disk-Shaped Stone. Shader : 169 Front View and Profile View Sezpen: Heads in Ghorotevan Art 172 Jaguar Design desociated hy Biewaes hat still Bees Archaic Characters. Costa Rica 173 Jaguars from painted Nicoyan Vases 173 Highly Conventionalized Jaguar Motive 175 Simple Crocodile Figures in Red Lines on ene pete Mercedes, Costa Rica 176 Panels containing Crocodiles Haine’) in Tabane Links on Large Tripod Bowls from Mercedes, Costa Rica . » 76 Simplified Crocodile Heads in the Yellow Line Ware of Mer- cedes, Costa Rica 3. Conventional Crocodiles from esta Bia at Paweatia eer!’ Pictographic Record of the Conquest of the Springs of Chapultepec . pf gt OR Le Tia ee ele Details from the Stone of Pie 198 Detail showing the Construction of the Baée a Gostilieie 201 Hieroglyphs of Precious Materials . 201 Phonetic Elements derived from Pictures and mecde in Wiexivan Place Name Hieroglyphs 202 Aztecan Place Names 202 Aztecan Day Signs : 203 Variant Forms of Aztecan Ding siens 204 Aztecan Numbers and Objects of Commerce . 204 Analysis of Mexican Record 207 Chalchuihtlicue, Aztecan Goddess a Water 209 A Mexican Orchestra ; 218 Mexican Blanket with the Disiems M rosctitias: Sand sre Water Bt Eis to oe ee The Year Symbol of Baathern Méesieo: 222 Year Bearers in the Codex’ Porfirio Diaz ooorineeh to Whe Cuicatecan Tribe . . 222 A Page from the Codex Nuttall, enone thes Coniauces ae a Town situated on an Island of the Sea 223 The God Macuilxochitl, Five Flower, as shown in a Biesinan Codex and in Pottery from Southern Mexico 225 INTRODUCTION Geography and Natural Environment. Unfortunately the terms ‘‘ Mexico and Central America ”’ are not mutually exclusive. Central America is a natu- ral division comprised between the Isthmus of Tehuan- tepec and the Isthmus of Panama. Mexico is a political division that includes several states in Central America, namely, Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatan, and the territory of Quintana Roo. The ancient high cultures of Mexico hardly extended as far north as the Tropic of Can- cer and the region beyond this is of slight interest to us. Positions south of Mexico 5 ie will often be referred to the Fig. 1. The Great Snow- areas of the modern political to™™ of 1447 shown in the units although these have no Hitec fee ania fas : . : Aztecs called Codex Telleri- immediate relation to pre- ano Remensis. Spanish conditions. These political units are: Guatemala, British Honduras, Hon- duras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Although lying within the tropics, the territory ex- tending from the Isthmus of Panama to Central Mexico exhibits great extremes of climate and topography and hence of plant and animal life. The year is everywhere divided into a wet and a dry season but the relative duration of each depends upon land form and altitude. The coast of the Pacific is considerably drier than that of the Atlantic. Three climatic zones are generally recognized, namely, the Tierra Caliente (Hot Land), Tierra Templada (Temperate Land), and Tierra Fria 13 14 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA (Cold Land), and in some regions each of these has an arid and a humid strip. The change from luxuriant forests to open thorny deserts is often very sudden. On the high plateau or Tierra Fria the natural warmth of the latitude is largely overcome by the altitude. In the Valley of Mexico snow falls only at rare intervals, yet chilling winds are common in the winter. Much of the plateau from Mexico south into Guatemala is open farming land well suited to the raising of maize and wheat where water is sufficient. The shoulders of the mountains bear forests of pine and oak while the highest peaks are crowned with perpetual snow. A description of the mountains, rivers, and lakes will help towards an understanding of the problems that are before us. The broad plateau, crossed by irregular ranges of mountains, that occupies the states of New Mexico and Arizona continues far south into Mexico. On the western rim the Sierra Madre lifts a great pine- covered barrier, beyond which the land drops off quickly into the hot fringe of coastal plain bordering the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California. The highest mountains of the western Sierra Madre are El Nevado and Colima, the first a snowy peak 14,370 feet high and the second an active voleano 12,278 feet high. On the eastern.rim of the central plateau the second Sierra Madre is less continuous but it culminates in the loftiest peak of all Mexico—the wonderful cone of Orizaba. This mountain rises from the tropical jungles well into the region of perpetual snow and attains an elevation of 18,314 feet above the sea. Its name in Aztecan is Citlaltepetl, which means Star Mountain. Two other famous peaks of Mexico are Popocatepetl and Iztacchihuitl, both names being pure: Aztecan. The first means Smoking Mountain and the second White Woman. These volcanic crests rise into the [5] Plate 1. (a) Village Scene in Arid Mexico. Cactus and other thorny shrubs are ever present. The houses of the natives are of adobe with thatched roofs. (b) In the Humid Lowlands. The view shows part of the plaza at Quirigua with one of the monuments almost concealed in vegetation of a few months’ growth. 15 16 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA snowy zone from the table-land which is itself about 8,000 feet above the sea. In southern Mexico the plateau area enclosed between the principal sierras narrows perceptibly, because the shore line of the Pacific and the mountain range that parallels it swing more and more towards the east. At the Isthmus of Tehuantepec a low valley sepa- rates the highland area of Mexico from that of Central America. This second table-land is not so wide as the one we have just con- sidered and is more deeply dis- sected by rivers. The mountains of Guatemala rise to a consider- able altitude, the highest being Tacané& with 13,976 feet eleva- tion. Active voleanoes are num- Fig. 2. The Smoke erous and earthquakes frequent reaches the Stars, € and often disastrous. The Volean te SI hale Agua and the Volcan de Fuego oleanie Eruption in the Codex Telleriano- (Yoleano of Water. and Voleame Remensis. of Fire) look down upon Cuidad Vieja and Antigua Guatemala, the old Spanish capitals which each in turn destroyed. The cordillera still presents its most abrupt front to the Pacific and on the eastern side, in Guatemala and Honduras, there are high forest-bearing ridges between the river systems. The Cockscomb Moun-- tains in British Honduras are a low outlying group. In southern Nicaragua the main chain is broken by a low broad valley that extends from ocean to ocean. In Costa Rica and Panama a single range stretches mid- way along the narrow strip of land, with peaks that rise above 11,000 feet. il re — INTRODUCTION 17 The lowland strip on the Pacific side of our area is a narrow fringe. Like the central plateau it is for the most part arid, but irrigation makes it productive. The lowlands of the Atlantic side are generally wet and heavily forested. The greatest land mass of uniformly low elevation is the Peninsula of Yucatan. In eastern Honduras and Nicaragua there are extensive river valleys of low elevation. The river systems of Mexico and Central America flow into the two bounding oceans or into lakes which have no outlets. Several closed basins occur on the Mexican table-land. The Rio Nazas and the Rio Nieves flow into salt marshes in the northern state of Coahuila. But the most important interior basin is the Valley of Mexico. In this mountain enclosed val- ley, whose general level is 7,500 feet above the sea, there are five lakes which in order from north to south are named Tzompanco, Xaltocan, Tezcoco, Xochimilco, and Chaleo. The last two contain fresh water, since they drain into Lake Tezcoco, but the rest are more or less brackish. Lake Tezcoco is by far the largest although its area has been greatly reduced by natural and artificial causes since the coming of the Spaniards. The largest river of Mexico is the Rio Lerma which takes the name Rio de Santiago during its deep and tortuous passage from Lake Chapala to the Pacific. Farther to the south is the Rio de las Balsas which _like- wise flows into the western ocean. The name means “River of the Rafts” and is given because of a peculiar floating apparatus made of gourds tied to a wooden framework that is used on this stream. Flowing into the Gulf of Mexico are several large streams, among which may be mentioned the Panuco, Alvarado, Grijalva, and Usumacinta. The last is by far the great- est in volume of water, and with its maze of tributaries 18 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA drains a large area of swamp and jungle in which are buried some of the most wonderful ruined cities of the New World. In the northern part of Yucatan there are no rivers on the surface on account of the porous limestone. Instead there are great natural wells called cenotes where the roofs of subterranean rivers have fallen in. Many of the ancient cities were built near such natural wells. Passing to the south the most important river of Guatemala is the Motagua, which has cut a fine valley through a region of lofty mountains. In Honduras there are several large rivers, including the Uloa, Patuca, and Segovia. The lake region of Nicaragua is drained by the San Juan River that flows into the Caribbean Sea. Nearly all the streams of Central America that flow into the Pacific are short and steep torrents. An important exception is the Lempa River that forms part of the interior boundary of Salvador. Concerning lakes, mention has already been made of Chapala and Tezcoco, the most important in Mexico. The former is about fifty miles in length. In the state of Michoacan there are a number of beautiful lakes intimately connected with the history and mythology of the Tarasean Indians. The most famous is called ~Patzeuaro. In southern Yucatan the shallow body of water known as Lake Peten also has a distinct historical interest. Several lakes in Guatemala are well known. on account of the rare beauty of their situation. Lake Atitlan is surrounded by lofty mountains, and Lake Izabal, or Golfo Dulce, is famous for the luxuriance of the vegetation that screens its banks. Lakes Nica- ragua and Managua are well known on account of their connection with the much-discussed canal projects. a ——— INTRODUCTION 19 The Island of Ometepe in Lake Nicaragua bears an active volcano. In regard to the geology it is only necessary to point out a few of the more important characters. The high- lands which bear so many active and quiescent vol- canoes naturally show great masses of eruptive rocks, some due to recent action and others much more ancient. Porous tufa is a common material for sculp- tures in many parts of Mexico and Central America. In other places there are great beds of softer and finer grained material also of voleanic origin. In these places, such as Copan in western Honduras and Mitla in south- ern Mexico, building in stone received its greatest development. The soft greenish stone of Copan seems to be a solidified mud flow permeated with volcanic ash rather than a true lava flow of melted rock. Lime- stones are also common and important in the economic development. In some regions there are beds of a hard, blue limestone going back to the Carboniferous epoch. This stone makes an excellent cement after burning. The Peninsula of Yucatan is a great plain of limestone of much more recent formation. Like our own Florida it was once a coral reef which was lifted above the sea by some natural agency. This limestone gets older and more solid as we approach the base of the peninsula but at best is rather porous and coarse-grained. The fauna and flora present great variation. In the moist lowlands the monkeys play in the tree tops and the jaguar lies in wait for its prey. Alligators and crocodiles infest the rivers and swamps. Two small species of deer and the ocellated turkey are important items in the meat supply of Yucatan, that includes also the iguana, the peccary, and various large rodents. The tapir and manatee are the largest animals of the low- lands but neither seems to have been of great signifi- 20 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA cance to the natives. Bats are frequently represented in the ancient art and a bat demon appears in several myths. Upon the highlands of Mexico the Toltecan deer is still hunted, together with the wild turkey, that is the parent of our domestic birds. The turkey was, in fact, domes- ticated by the Mexican tribes. It probably occurred southward over the Guatemalan highlands G but is now extinct in this latter Fig. 3. Yucatan Deer yeoion. In the southern part of caught ina Snare. From Genta semi l es the Mayan Codex, Tro- ° pene. ee 4 P mide " e @arsennas turkey as an item of diet is taken by the curassow, a yellow-crested bird with black plumage. The coppery-tailed trogon, the famous quetzal, was sacred in ancient times and is now the emblem of Guatemala. This beautiful bird occurs only in the cloud cap forest zone on the high mountains of southern Mexico and Guatemala. Blue macaws, parrots, paroquets, and humming birds con- tributed their gay plumage to adorn headdresses and _ feather-covered cloaks. These. and many other birds doubtless flitted about in the aviary of Moctezuma. ‘The black vulture, the king vulture and the _. ‘ harpy eagle are other conspicuous Bard, Ot 7 ea : ‘ : personified as a Demi- birds often figured in the ancient oq. Dresden Codex. art. The coyote, ocelot, and puma are the principal beasts of prey on the highlands. Among the characteristic trees of the lowlands may Pz LON OF ht be. iS Z YN Yy Nim, | GZZ Y Y 5 A 1 . i A Ce pe be mentioned the palm, which occurs in great variety, Fig. 4. The Moan | INTRODUCTION 21 the amate and ceiba, both of which attain to large size, as well as mahogany, Spanish cedar (which is not a cedar at all but a close relative of the mahogany), cam- peche, or logwood, rosewood, sapodilla, and other trees of commerce. Upon the higher mountain slopes are forests of long-leaf pine and of oak. In the desert stretches the cactus is often tree-like and there are many shrubs that in the brief spring become masses of highly-colored blossoms. Some of the principal crops of Mexico and Central America have been introduced from the Old World, including coffee, sugar cane, and bananas. Other crops such as maize, beans, chili peppers, cocoa, etc., are indigenous. Among the native fruits may be men- tioned the aguwacate, or alligator pear, the mamey, the anona, or custard apple, the guanabina, jocote, and nance. History of European Contact. The great area with which we are concerned has been in touch with Europe since the beginning of the sixteenth century. Columbus on his last voyage in 1502, landed on the north- ern coast of Honduras and rounded the stormy cape ealled Gracias 4 Dios. Later he skirted the shore of Costa Rica and Panama and entered the body of water which was named in his honor Bahia del Almirante—Bay of the Admiral. He brought back sensational news of the gold in possession of the natives, which they had told him came from a district called Veragua. After a few years of stormy warfare the Spaniards established them- selves firmly in this golden land. Vasco Nunez de Bal- boa, who emerged from the bickering mob as the strong- est leader, was the first white man to cross the Isthmus. This he did in 1513, grandiloquently laying claim to the Pacific Ocean and all the shores that it touched in the 22 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA name of Spain. The crown appointed the greedy and black-hearted Pedrarias Davila governor of Darien and in 1517 he succeeded in having Balboa beheaded on a flimsy charge. Colonization and exploration went for- ward rapidly. In 1519 the old city of Panama, now in ruins, was founded. The rich region around the Nica- raguan lakes was discovered by Gil Gonzalez Davila and the city of Granada was founded in 1524. The explora- tion from the southern base came in contact with that from the north in Salvador shortly after this event. Let us now direct our attention to the conquest of Mexico. Perhaps the Portuguese were the first to sight the mainland of Yucatan in 1498. There is little to prove this except one or two charts or maps made in the first decade of the sixteenth century ; that show the peninsula in its proper location... In. Tod): or 1512: a ship from Darien was wrecked and some of the sailors were cast upon the coast of Yucatan. Most. of them were killed and sacrificed but two survived. One of these survivors was Geronimo Fig. 5. Spanish de Aguilar, who later was rescued by Ship in the Aubin Cortez and became his guide and ©4ex. interpreter. - | | The first accredited voyage of discovery to Mexico was one under the command of Francisco Hernandez de — Cordoba, which sailed from Cuba in February, 1517. He coasted the northern and eastern shores of Yucatan. When he attempted to obtain water he was worsted in a serious battle with the Maya Indians. His expedition finally returned to Cuba in a sad plight. The next year Juan de Grijalva set out to continue the exploration of the new land with the stone built cities. He landed at: Bei oe [5] Plate II. (a) Site of Pueblo Viejo, the First Capital of Guate- mala; (b) A Spanish Church at the Village of Camotan on the Road to Copan. 23 24 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA Cozumel Island and took possession. He explored the eastern coast of Yucatan as well as the northern and western ones, discovered the mouth of the large river that bears his name, and proceeded as far as the Island of Sacrifices in the harbor of Vera Cruz. The next year Hernando Cortez was sent out by Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, to conquer the new land. He landed at Cozumel Island and rescued Ge- ronimo de Aguilar. Then he followed the coast to the mouth of the Grijalva River where he disembarked and fought the important battle of Cintla, the first engage- ment in the New World in which cavalry was used. After a signal victory Cortez continued his way to Vera Cruz. Here delay and dissension seemed about to break the luck of the invaders. Although the Mexicans were somewhat inclined to regard the Spaniards as supernatural visitants and to associate their coming with the fabled return of Quet- zalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent, still Moctezuma refused to grant an interview to Cortez. The Totonacan city of Cempoalan opened its gates and became allies of the invaders. Finally, at the instigation of their stout- hearted captain, the Spaniards destroyed their ships on the shore in order to steel their resolution through the impossibility of retreat. Then the little band of 450 white men with their retinue of natives marched towards the highlands. The route led past Jalapa and over the mountains to the fortified city of Tlaxcala. This city after a skirmish likewise enlisted in the Spanish cause, a course that came easy because Tlaxcala was a tra- ditional enemy of Tenochtitlan, the ancient Mexico City, and had withstood the attacks of the Aztecs for . many years. From here Cortez passed to the sacred city of Cholula where, suspecting treachery, he caused many of the inhabitants to be massacred. — INTRODUCTION — 25 In the Spanish histories one hears much concerning the omens, the prophecies, and the vain appeals to the gods that became more and more frequent and frantic as the invaders approached the capital. Arriving at Ixtapalapan they entered upon the great causeway leading out to the Venice- like city in the lake. Ac- cepting the _ inevitable, Moctezuma and his nobles met the Spaniards and conducted them to the Palace of Axayacatl, which was prepared for their Fig. 6. Cortez arrives with habitation. This took Sword and Cross and Mocte- place in November, 1519. seat rte ae rac The fears of Moctezuma | were soon fulfilled, for he was taken prisoner and held as a hostage of safety in his own capital. Meanwhile Velasquez, convinced of the unfaithful- ness of Cortez, dispatched Narvaez to capture the rebellious agent. But Narvaez was himself captured and his soldiers went to augment the army of the victor. Alvarado had been left in command of the garrison at Tenochtitlan during the absence of Cortez. The time approached for the great feast of Tezcatlipoca and the Spaniards, fearing the results of this appeal to the principal Aztecan god, resolved to be the first to strike. The multitude assembled in the temple enclosure was massacred and after this deed the soldiers fought their way back to the stronghold in which they were quar- tered. The Aztecs were thoroughly aroused by this unwarranted cruelty as well as by the cupidity of the Spaniards. Cortez hastened back to take personal charge; but in spite of victories in the storming of the pyramids and in other hand-to-hand contests, the in- “26 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA vaders were so weakened that their condition was truly alarming. Moctezuma died in captivity and the last restraint of the natives was removed. The night of June 30, 1520, is famous as La Noche Triste—The Sad Night—for on this night the Spaniards attempted to steal out of the city that had become untenable. The natives were warned by a woman’s shriek and a desperate encounter took place on the nar- Fig. 7. Aztecan Canoe. Lienzo de Tlaxcala. row causeway leading to Tlacopan. The bridges were torn down and the Spanish soldiers in armor were hemmed in between the deep canals. At last, however, the firm land was reached. Here, instead of following up the victory, the natives permitted the Spaniards to re-form their ranks. A few days later Cortez was able to restore something of his lost prestige by the decisive victory at Otumba, after which he continued his retreat to the friendly Tlaxcala. A year was spent in recuperation, in building boats for an attack from the lake, and in putting down the Aztecan outposts. In the meantime the natives were INTRODUCTION 27 suffering from a dreadful visitation of smallpox, in- troduced by the Spaniards, and Cuitlahuac, the succes- sor of Moctezuma, had died of this disease after a rule of eighty days. Finally Tenochtitlan was besieged again. The buildings were leveled to the ground as the Spaniards advanced. The brave defense of Cuauh- temoe availed for naught against cannon and steel armor. On the 13th of August, 1521, the conquest of Tenochtitlan was achieved and the spirit of a warlike people forever broken. The Valley of Mexico having been taken, numerous expeditions were sent out to subdue the more distant provinees and to establish colonies. Alvarado invaded the south and by 1524 he had captured Utatlan and other native strongholds on-the highlands of Guate- mala and had invaded Salvador. Cortez himself under- took a wonderful march from Vera Cruz to the Gulf of Honduras to punish an unruly subordinate. His course lay through the swamps and jungles of the Usumacinta basin, thence across the savannahs of southern Yucatan to Lake Peten, and, finally, over the mountains to Lake Izabal and the Motagua River. Even today much of his route would be called impass- able for an army. Puerto Cortez, on the northern coast of Honduras, was founded at the conclusion of this expedition. The exploitation of Yucatan and Tabasco was granted to Francisco Montejo, who began the con- quest of this lowlying territory in 1527. The first cam- paigns were disastrous and heart-breaking. Several short-lived Salamancas were founded, one of them at Chichen Itza. But the odds were too great and by 1535 all the Spaniards had been killed or expelled. The son of Montejo renewed the struggle. In 1541 Campeche was founded and early in 1541 the city of Mérida was established upon the site of an earlier Mayan town. ) [2] Plate III... (a) View of the Island Town of Flores in Lake Peten where the Last Capital of the Itzas was located; (b) The Sacred Cenole at Chichen Itza into which Human Beings were thrown as Sacrifices, along with Objects of Jade and Gold. 28 INTRODUCTION 29 Progress was also rapid in the north. Nuno de Guz- * man departed in 1529 on a mission to conquer Michoa- ean and the great northern province known as New Galicia. His rule was marred by many acts of cruelty. In 1538 Coronado, the successor of Guzman, led his army northward to the land of the Pueblo Indians and then out into the Great Plains. Before the first Eng- lish settlement was made in North America the power of Spain was firmly established, not only throughout Central America and Mexico, but also in the south- western part of the United States. The spiritual conquest was no less remarkable than the territorial. The priests accompanied and even preceded the armies with the doctrine of the cross. The rough and ready characters that enliven the wonderful drama of this period had the vices of greed and cruelty, but nearly all were imbued with a pride of religion, if not with the true flame. The firmness and bigotry on the one hand and the open sympathy on the other with which the Catholic fathers met the practical problems before them resulted in vast achievements. Either by accident or design certain patron saints and efficacious . shrines of special interest to the natives were not long in becoming known. The Virgin of Guadeloupe and the Black Christ of Esquipulas brought many converts to the foreign faith. Church building was carried on apace. The various religious orders became rich and powerful and exerted a strong influence upon civil administration. , The later history of this great region can be passed over briefly. Cortez was the first governor general of Mexico but he was soon shorn of his power as dictator at large. The First Audiencia was appointed in 1528 and is noteworthy simply by reason of its misrule. The Second GS0OGaco dO Fig. 15. Types of Eves of Archaic Figurines. put in between the lids. These and perforated eyes seem to be the latest characters to be developed in the archaic art and it is significant-that they are not found over such a wide area as the forms of eyes given above. Ancient Customs. We may gather much of an ethnological nature from the study of these quaint figures. Articles of dress and adornment are shown as well as musical instruments, weapons, ete. Head- dresses may consist of fillets, turbans, and objects perched on one side of the head. Noserings and ear- rings are abundantly represented and in considerable -variety. We may be sure that weaving was rather highly developed because many garments such as shirts, skirts, and aprons are painted or incised with geometric designs. Body painting, or tattooing, appears to have been a common usage. Among weapons the atlatl, or spear-thrower, was already known and knobby clubs seem to have been popular. Men are shown beating on drums and turtle shells, while women nurse children and carry water. Since the large figures of clay are often found in tombs it is not impossible that they were intended to be portraits of the dead. Many have a startling quality of caricature. 54 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA Archaic art is a pretty certain index of the religion then in vogue. There is a notable absence of purposely grotesque or compounded figures representing divinities such as will be found in the later horizons. We miss en- tirely the characteristic Mexican gods such as Tlaloc and Ehecatl. Dogs are frequently modeled in clay and were apparently developed into a rather special \ Geis Oy, Ck----- O_O G ale AG Ziaawceansananaisn o/ Y \ GSU "INNNG A) 4; Y Fig. 16. Textile Designs painted on Archaic Effigies. domestic breed. Snakes are sometimes found as a plastic decoration on pottery but there are few signs of serpent worship. We can find no evidence that human sacrifice was practised. The presence of human figurines in graves has already been mentioned and the suggestion made that some of them may have been in- tended as portraits of the dead. Nude female figurines in sitting or standing positions have an unbroken distri- bution from Mexico into South America and it is not un- likely the primitive agriculturists associated them with Or wo) | THE ARCHAIC HORIZON fertility and used them as amulets to secure good crops. The male figurines may have been votive offer- ings for success at arms. Archaic Pottery. The ordinary pottery of the Archaic Period from Mexico and Central America is heavy and simple in shape. The globular bowl with a constricted neck is a common form as well as wide- mouthed bowls with or without tripod supports. Lugs and handles are very common. When plain, the tripods Fig. 17. Typical Tripod Vessels of the Archaic Period, from Morelcs, Mexico. are large, hollow and rounded, with a perforation on the under side, but they are often modified into faces and feet. Many vessels are decorated by the addition of modeled faces enabling us to make a direct connection with the figures in clay already described. In fact the decoration of pottery of this early period is predominantly in relief. Paint is sparingly used and then only in the simplest geometric fashion. There is a general lack of conventionalized motives presenting animals and other natural forms in highly modified ways. In later ages the painted decoration is much concerned with the serpent, but except for a few wind- ing serpents in relief, this motive is not seen on the pottery of the Archaic Period. Stone Sculptures of the Archaic Period. The earliest stone sculptures are recognized first by resem- blance to the ceramic art just described and second by a [5] Plate VIII. Costa Rican Figures of Archaic Type (a) contrasted with those of a Later Time (b). Note that in the first series the human body is adapted to the surface of a boulder with the arms, legs, and face in low relief and with eyes, nose, and mouth all protrud- ing, while in the second series the limbs are rounded and partly freed from the body. THE ARCHAIC HORIZON 57 quality which they possess of being archaic in an abso- lute sense. The greater difficulty of working stone as compared with clay and the longer time required in the process makes stone art less subject to caprice than ceramic art. Perhaps the most primitive examples of stone sculpture are boulders rudely carved in a sem- blance of the human form with features either sunken or in relief. The arms and legs are ordinarily flexed so that the elbows meet over the knees. The eyes and Fig. 18. Series showing the Modification of a Celt into a Stone Amulet. mouths in the most carefully finished pieces protrude, but the face has little or no modeling. Many celts are modified into figures by grooves, and faces are fre- quently represented on roughly conical or disk-shaped stones. We know very little from actual excavations concern- ing houses of the Archaic Period. It is likely that they were small and impermanent, possibly resembling the modern huts. The pyramidal mound as a foundation for the temple was possibly developed towards the end of the Archaic Period. It would be interesting to determine whether adobe moulded into bricks was known at this time, as it was at a later time in the same region, or whether walls were built up out of fresh mud possibly reinforced by slabs of stone. swipe ites [d] Plate IX. Widely Distributed Female Figurines: (a) Nicar- agua; (b) Panama; (c) Venezuela; (d) Island of Marajo, Brazil. 58 on THE ARCHAIC HORIZON 59 Extensions of the Archaic Horizon. The curi- ous objects of ceramic art that we have found deeply buried under the débris of higher civilizations in the Valley of Mexico can be traced practically without change in form to Nicaragua. They are encountered for the most part in arid and open country, and since we have every reason to believe that the earliest agri- culture was developed under irrigation, it is but natural to find the use of agriculture spreading first into other arid regions. In the Isthmian region (Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama) many figurines of archaic type are found, and besides there are fine series of figurines that are obvi- ously developed from the archaic. Still further south and east in Colombia and Venezuela the typical art of the archaic horizon again appears in almost pure form, although local developments are also to be noted. Everywhere the remains are most plentiful in arid regions. It now seems that the trail of this ancient pottery art, marking the first dissemination of agricul- ture, can be traced across the northern part of South America to the mouth of the Amazon and southward along the Andes to the coastal regions of Peru. It is surely significant that figurines from the Island of Marajo near Para, Brazil, have fundamental similarities to those from Venezuela and Central America and that a stratification of human remains at Ancon, Peru, as explained by Dr. Max Uhle, shows plastic art in clay similar to that of Central America in the lowermost level. The problem of local developments deserves careful study because if the theory that this pottery art spread hand in hand with agriculture be true then the greatest similarities should be seen in the oldest objects. Once the primary dissemination of agriculture and ceramics had taken place there would be few inventions 60 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA capable of breaking down the ordinary boundaries of language and environment as these had done. In our own times the horse, introduced by the Spaniards, spread rapidly through native tribes, modifying their lives greatly. It is capable of demonstration that with the horse went the two types of saddle—the pack saddle and the riding saddle. Similarly, in the rapid first spreading of agriculture, pottery and possibly weaving appear as parts of a complex. Of course, we must grant a sufficient time in the original home of agriculture for these things to be developed. Two maps of the New World are given herewith: the first showing the extension of the archaic horizon and the second the final distribution of pottery among the American Indians and the final distribution of agricul- ture. The agricultural area is subdivided according to, first, the arid land type where irrigation is generally practised; second, the humid land type; and third, the temperate land type. The first type of agriculture appears to be the earliest and the range coincides for the most part with the range of the archaic pottery art. Local Developments of Archaic Art. We have now examined the status of this earliest pottery in Mexico and Central America and discussed the problem of its distribution into South America. Let us next turn our attention to some of the developments that took place when this art was locally permitted to work out its higher destinies. The sudden rise of the superior culture of the Mayas snuffed it out untimely in southern Mexico, but in other and more distant regions the in- fluence of the ascendant Mayan civilization was less strongly felt and was not sufficient to more than modify the original character of the archaic art. In other words, where the archaic art was given a few extra cen- turies to run it arrived at superior results. a, 9 Plate X. Distribution of the Archaic Culture. The areas in solid black show the distribution of figurines of the archaic type; the areas in dots show the probable extension of pottery on the Archaic Horizon; the dotted lines give the ultimate extension of pottery. (61 ‘ ‘S a rie a Lie om i i ag i i r e ’ Plate XI. Distribution of Agriculture in the New World. The dot- ted line gives the limits of pottery; solid black, agriculture in arid regions of considerable altitude, mostly with irrigation; dotted areas, agriculture under humid lowland conditions; lined area, agriculture under temperate conditions. —r. THE ARCHAIC HORIZON 63 It is probable that the unusually elaborate effigies from western Mexico are somewhat later in date than the comparatively simple figurines of central Mexico. But still better examples of local development out of the archaic are to be found in the Isthmian area. Here the most ancient remains (according to types, since actual stratigraphy has not yet been determined) appear to be common in the arid regions and rare in the humid regions. But in certain humid regions, such as the Peninsula of Nicoya on the Pacific side of Costa Rica and the Mercedes district on the Atlantic side, are found modified types of clay figurines and stone carvings that still retain many archaic features. Now, there is little doubt that in general these figurines and sculptures be- long to an horizon above that of the truly archaic. The associated decorative art in painting is of a higher type than that of the Archaic Period in the north and shows in fact many points of contact with the painted designs on the vessels of the Mayan civilization. Perhaps the most interesting type of figurine (found in both the localities named above, but more common in the west) represents a nude female in a sitting pose. The actual body treatment is very like that of the archaic seated females from Salvador and Mexico, but the surface is painted over with designs in glossy black upon dark and brilliant red. The paints as well as the designs are peculiar and it is possible to group the figurines with vases in which the same pigments and decorations are used. Now, these associated vases are characteristically of the cylindrical shape that was in great vogue among the Mayas in post-archaic times and the designs painted upon these vases also have many features in common with Mayan work. Likewise when we pass to the Chiriqui region in western Panama we find the seated female to be com- 64 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA mon. Again, the associated designs are complicated and developed far beyond the point reached in the truly archaic of the northern stratigraphic series. The figurines belong to what has been called ‘alligator ware,” because the alligator or crocodile is the subject of many of the designs. A safer classification is made on the basis of the clay and pigments. The archaic technique is also presented in much of the relief decora- tion of still other kinds of pottery from the Isthmian area. In the beautiful yellow ware of Chiriqui small human figures in the ancient style serve to decorate handles, knobs, and legs. In stone art as well as in pottery there are local devel- opments out of the archaic mode in Costa Rica and Panama. Crude figures with the parts carved in low relief around oval boulders seem to give away to more conventionalized sculptures made on slabs of sandstone. For this second type the limbs are partly freed from the torso, while in still later sculptures they are freed entirely. The ancient gold work of Costa Rica and Panama also reflects the technique of archaic art although most of it, to judge by the religious significance of many of the sub- jects and designs, was made long after the Archaic Period. Just as the pottery figurines were built up by the addition of ribbons and buttons of clay to a general- ized form so the patterns for gold castings were made by adding details in rolled wax or resin to a simple under- lying form of the same material. This art will be dis- cussed more fully in another place, the mention here being made simply to emphasize the general connection between the art of the Archaic Period and that of later periods. — Summary. In concluding this section let us sum up the general facts of ancient American history as THE ARCHAIC HORIZON 65 these appear in relation to the archeological evidences of the archaic horizon. I. Il. Ill. Pre-Archaic Horizon. The peopling of the New World from Asia by tribes on the nomadic plane of culture. The Archaic Horizon. Invention and primary dissemination of agri- culture, together with pottery making and loom weaving. Homogeneous culture with unde- veloped religion and unsymbolic art. Practi- cally limited to arid tropics. Post Archaic Horizon. Specialized cultures in North, Central, and South America dependent upon agriculture. Strong local developments in esthetic arts, re- ligious ideas, and social institutions. Agricul- ture extended to humid tropical and temperate regions. We will now make an effort to analyze still further the historical levels in the Post Archaic Horizon. 99 ‘UOTJOIS-SSO1D [BINJVU B apeur puv sijodosoe oy} Jo apts oy} OJUT yo sey JoATY UBdOD EYL ‘dn jos8 018 S}UOWINUOUL YOTYM UT BZBTq JBL ey} Uses st puodog puv pUNOIGeI0} oY} UI ST S}INoD UsyUNS pus sprureiAd uo soydure} YUM stpodosov Tey ye oY, ‘Aejspneyy Aq Surmerp pus jopow v Joyyy “uURdoD Jo 10JW9) [BIUOUIoIE) oY} JO MOIA [B1OUEL) Wo TTX 97¥ld CHAPTER II THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION . ‘HE wonderful culture of the Mayan Indians to which we will now turn our attention was devel- oped in the humid lowlands of Central America and especially in the Yucatan peninsula. Artists are everywhere of the opinion that the sculptures and other products of the Mayas deserve to rank among the high- est art products of the world, and astronomers are amazed at the progress made by this people in the meas- uring of time by the observed movements of the heavenly bodies. Moreover, they invented a remark- able system of hieroglyphic writing by which they were able to record facts and events and they built great cities of stone that attest a degree of wealth and splendor beyond anything seen elsewhere in the New World. 7 The Mayan culture was made possible by the agri- cultural conquest of the rich lowlands where the exuber- ance of nature can only be held in check by organized effort. On the highlands the preparation of the land is comparatively easy, owing to scanty natural vegeta- tion and a control vested in irrigation. On the lowlands, however, great trees have to be felled and fast-growing bushes kept down by untiring energy. But when nature is truly tamed she returns recompense many fold to the daring farmer. Moreover, there is reason to believe that the removal of the forest cover over large areas affects favorably the conditions of life which under a canopy of leaves are hard indeed. The principal crops of the Mayas were probably much the same as on the highlands, with maize as the great staple. Varieties favorable to a humid environment 67 [b] Plate XIII. (a) View of the Plaza at Copan from the North- western Corner. This view shows the monuments in position and the steps which may have served as seats; (b) View Across the Artificial Acropolis at Copan showing a Sunken Court and the Bases of Two Temple Structures. Photographs by Peabody Museum Expedition. 68 THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 69 had doubtless been developed from the highland stock by selective breeding as agriculture worked its way down into the lowlands. Archaic art appears along the edges of the Mayan area in the state of Vera Cruz, Mexico, and in the Uloa Valley, Honduras. In both these regions are also found clay figurines that mark the transition in style between the archaic and the Mayan as well as finished examples of the latter. There can be no doubt, then, that the archaic art of Mexico marks an — earlier horizon than the Mayan. Whether or not it was once laid entirely across the Mayan area cannot be decided on present data but it seems unlikely. We have already seen that this first art was distributed primarily across arid and open territory. With their calendrical system already in working order the Mayas appear on the threshold of history about the beginning of the Christian Era according to a correlation with European chronology that will be ex- plained later. The first great cities were Tikal in northern Guatemala and Copan in western Honduras, both of which had a long and glorious existence. Many others sprang into prominence at a somewhat later date; for example, Palenque, Yaxchilan or Menché, Piedras Negras, Seibal, Naranjo, and Quirigua. The most brilliant period was from 300 to 600 A. D., after which all these cities appear to have been abandoned to the forest that soon closed over them. The population moved to northern Yucatan, where it no longer reacted strongly upon the other nations of Central America and where it enjoyed a second period of brilliancy several hundred years later. Architecture. The idea of a civic center is ad- mirably illustrated in Mayan cities, particularly those of the first brilliant period. The principal structures 70 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA are built around courts or plazas and there is usually an artificial acropolis which is a great terraced mound serving as a common base or platform from which the individual: pyramidal bases of several temples rise. At some sites this acropolis is a natural hill which has been trimmed down or added to, but at other sites it is entirely artificial. At Copan there is an especially fine [a] [5] Fig. 19. Groundplans of Yaxchilan Temples: (a) Structure 42; (b) Structure 23. example of artificial platform mound rising from one end of the Great Plaza and affording space for several temples as well as for sunken courts with stepped sides that may have been theatres. The river washing against one side of this great mound has removed per- haps a third of it and made a vertical section that shows THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 71 the method of construction. It is apparent that the mound was enlarged and old walls and floors buried. Mayan buildings are of two principal kinds. One is a temple pure and simple and the other has been called a palace. The temple is a rectangular structure crown- ing a rather high pyramid that rises in several steps or terraces. As a rule the temple has a single front with one or more doorways and is approached by a broad stairway. The pyramid is ordinarily a solid mass of rubble and earth faced with cement or cut stone and rarely contains compartments. Some temples have but a single chamber while others have two or more chambers, the central or innermost one being specially developed into a sanctuary. The so-called palaces are clusters of rooms on low and-often irregular platforms. These palaces may have been habitations of the priests and nobility. The common people doubtless lived in palm-thatched huts similar to those used today in the same region. The typical Mayan construction is a faced concrete. The limestone, which abounds in nearly all parts of the Mayan area, was burned into lime. This was then slaked to make mortar and applied to a mass of broken limestone. The facing stones were smoothed on the outside and left rough hewn and pointed on the inside. It is likely that these facing stones were held in place between forms and the lime, mortar and rubble filled in between. The resulting wall was essentially mono- lithic. The rooms of Mayan buildings are characteris- tically vaulted but the roof is not a true arch with a keystone. The vault, like the walls, is a solid mass of concrete that grips the cut stone veneer and that must have been held in place by a false work form while it was hardening. The so-called corbelled arch of overstepping stones was doubtless known to the Mayan builders but apts OYTO FV GL ‘roreyy Aq ydeasojoyg ‘ofyoud ut pvoy yuedses & S}UaseIdad USIsop oY} LOOP ayy Jo qno opvur Ayurejd oq {MS uvo SoXd OY} YOIYM JO 90VT MOTA JUOT, ONbHSo}OIs GB S}UdSoIdaI LOOP OY} IOAO UBISOP OT, *“009N4G UI SUOT}VAODOCT OpBdeT 9} BIOGLIY SUIMOYS qoyooH 4¥oduroy, VW “ATX 9}°%[d Plate XV. A Sealed Portal Vault in the House of the Governor at Uxmal. The veneer character of the cut stone comes out clearly. Peabody Museum photograph. 14 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA was little used. Taking the single rectangular room as the unit of construction the width was limited to the span of the vault, which seldom exceeded twelve feet, while the length was indeterminate. The first variation from the temple with one rectan- gular room was the two-roomed structure with one chamber directly behind the other. In this case there were two vaulted compartments separated from each W SOME } i / if eas nent — = Eee << Se oS eS ex Ro ee SS b= \e ee oS pat Ree a bios CSa-< [as p=. eF Bes Lyi on LS es SS ES z Se i Sar Fig. 20. Cross-section of Typical Mayan Temple in Northern Yucatan: a, upper cornice; b, medial cornice; c, upper zone; d, lower zone; e, wooden lintels; f, exterior doorway; g, interior doorway; h, offset at spring of-vault; 7, cap stone. . other by a common supporting wall pierced by one or more doorways. The inner room was naturally more dimly lighted than the other one and as a result was modified into a sanctuary, or holy of holies, enhanced by sculptures and paintings, while the outer room devel- oped gradually into a portico. The outer wall was cut “= ~~ [b] Plate XVI. (a) Model of the Temple of the Cross designed to show the Construction. The building has three entrances separated by piers. The middle partition is thickened to support the weight. of the roof comb which is a trellis designed to carry stucco decora- tion. The sanctuary is a miniature temple in the inner chamber. The walls are built of slabs of limestone set in lime cement; (b) Detail of Frieze on the Temple of the Cross. The upper band is the sky with stars and planets. A reptilian monster occupies the main panel with human figures as supplementary decorations upon his legs. 76 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA by doorways till only pier-like sections remained, and finally these piers were replaced by square or round columns. The development of the Mayan temple may be traced through a thousand years of change and adjustment. Much attention was paid by Mayan builders to the question of stability which was accomplished directly by keeping the center of gravity of the principal masses within the supporting walls rather than by the use of binding stones. The cross-section of a two-roomed temple of late date will illustrate how this was done. There are three principal masses, one over the front wall, one over the medial partition, and one over the back wall. The roof where these sections join is of no great thickness. The central mass is symmetrical and, if the mortar has the proper cohesiveness, very stable. For the front and back masses the projection of the upper or frieze zone tends to counterbalance the over- hang of half the vault. In the earlier temples the upper zone of the facade often slopes backward so that the balance is not so perfect. ) So far we have given brief space to the question of elevations. Taken vertically there are three parts to the Mayan building: first, the substructure or pyra- midal base; second, the structure proper; third, the superstructure. In the case of temples the structure proper is one story in height. Two and three stories are rather common in palaces, but the upper stories are in most cases built directly over a solid core and not over the rooms of the lower story. The upper stories, therefore, recede, so that the building presents a ter- raced or pyramidal profile. One building at Tikal is five stories in height, in three receding planes, the three uppermost stories being one above the other. In a tower at Palenque we have an example of four stories but this is unusual. THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 77 On top of the building proper, especially if it is a temple, we frequently find a superstructure. This is a sort of crest, or roof wall, usually pierced by windows. When this wall rises from the center line of the roof it is ealled a roof comb or roof crest, and when it rises from the front wall it is called a flying fagade. The highest temples in the Mayan area are those of Tikal that attain a total height of about 175 feet, counting pyra- mid and superstructure. Massive Sculptural Art. The decoration of Mayan buildings may be considered under three heads: first, interior decoration; second, facade decoration; third, supplementary monuments. In many temples at Yaxchilan, Tikal, etc., are found splendidly sculptured lintels of stone or wood. At Copan we see wall sculp- tures that adorn the entrance to the sanctuary and at Palenque finely sculptured tablets let into the rear wall of the sanctuary. Elsewhere are occasional examples of mural paintings, sculptured door jambs, decorated interior steps, etc. The facade decorations of the earlier Mayan struc- tures are freer and more realistic than those of the later buildings. In many cases they consist of figures of men, serpents, etc., modeled in stucco or built up out of several nicely fitted blocks of stone. Grotesque faces also occur. In the later styles, decoration consists largely of ‘“‘mask panels,’ which are grotesque front view faces arranged to fill rectangular panels, but there is an increasing amount of purely geometric ornament. The masked panels represent in most instances a highly elaborated serpent’s face which sometimes carries the special markings of one of the greater gods. These panels, considered historically, pass through some interesting developments. Angular representations of serpent heads in profile are sometimes used at the sides of doorways. rrr, 78 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA The supplementary monuments are stele and altars. These are monolithic sculptures that are often set up in definite relation to a building either on the terraces or at the foot of the stairway. The stele are great plinths or slabs of stone carved on one or more sides with the figures of priests and warriors loaded down with religious symbols. The altars are small stones usually placed in front of the stele. Many stele and altars are set up in plazas and have no definite archi- tectural quality. Sere Ca Fig. 21. Mask Panel over Doorway at Xkichmook. Yucatan. Minor Arts. While the richly ornamented temples and the great monoliths attract first attention as works of art, the humbler products of the potter, the weaver, and the lapidary also attained to grace and dignity. The Mayas were expert potters and employed a variety of technical processes in the decoration of their wares, such as painting, modeling, engraving, and stamping. We can only take time to examine a few examples of the best works, leaving the commoner products practically undescribed. Suffice it to say, that tripod dishes were much used, as well as bowls, bottle-necked vessels, and cylindrical vases, and that Plate XVII. (a) Realistic Designs on Vases from Cham4, Guate- mala, representing the Best Mayan Period in Pottery; (b) The Quetzal as represented on a Painted Cylindrical Vase from Copan. Bands of Hieroglyphs are commonly found on Mayan Pottery. 79 80 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA the common decorative use of hieroglyphs serves to mark off Mayan pottery from that of other Central American peoples: The realistic designs are drawn in accordance with the highest principles of decorative art. Serpents, monkeys, jaguars, various birds, as well as priests and supernatural beings, are used as subjects for pottery embellishment. Geometric decoration is also much used. | . The polychrome pottery is rare and exceptionally beautiful, with designs relating to religious subjects. The background color of these cylindrical vases is usually orange or yellow, the designs are outlined in black, and the details filled in with delicate washes of red, brown, white, etc. The surface bears a high polish made by rubbing. Plate XVII reproduces the de- — sign units on two vases from Chama, Guatemala. The first example pictures a seated man with a widespread- ing headdress made of two conventional serpent heads from the ends of which issue the plumes of the quetzal. The hieroglyphs are Mayan day signs—Ben and Imix on the left and Kan and Caban on the right. The second example presents a god before an altar. This god has the face of an old man and his body is attached to a spiral shell. This divinity has been called the Old Man God. He was probably associated with the end of the year. In the next illustration an engraved design on a bowl from northern Yucatan is given. A jaguar attired in the dress of man is seated in a wreathe of water lilies. After the vessel had been formed, but before it had been fired, this design was made by cutting away the back- ground and incising finer details on the original surfaces. Other designs in relief were obtained by direct modeling or by stamping. The stamps were moulds or negatives made from bas-relief patterns. a Tiger seated in presenting ucatan. ot re orthern Y Design on Engraved P N Wreathe of Water Lilies. a al Bowl showing Serpent issu- n on Cylindric d Desig Painte Fig. 23. ing from a Shell. Salvador. S 82 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA The textile arts of the ancient Mayas can be recovered in part from a study of the monuments since the designs on many garments are reproduced in delicate relief. The designs are mostly all-over geometric patterns, but borders reproducing the typical ‘‘celestial band,” a line of astronomical symbols, are also seen. The techniques of brocade and lace were understood by the ancient weavers. In the minor textile art of basketry the products must also have ranked high; a typical basket pictured on a lintel is given in Fig. 24. on yy ye % > | o | qe [ EO Tf COCO E 4 KKK K KKK SH EKKKK S 22 > y>> KKK % pe Fig. 24. Mayan Basket represented in Stone Sculpture. Jade and other semi-precious stones were carved by the Mayas into beautiful and fantastic shapes. There was a considerable use of mosaic veneer on masks and other ceremonial objects. Metal was probably unknown during the first centuries of Mayan florescence, later it was rare and could not be used for tools, but the working of gold and copper in the manufacture of ornaments was on a high plane. Having now passed in brief review the objective side of Mayan remains, let us turn our attention to the sub- jective. The Serpent in Mayan Art. Mayan art is strange and unintelligible at first sight, but after care- ful study many wonderful qualities appear in it. In the knowledge of foreshortening and composition, the THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 83 Mayas were superior to the Egyptians and Assyrians. They could draw the human body in pure profile and in free and graceful attitudes and they could compose several figures in a rectangular panel so that the result satisfies the eye of a modern artist. ~ But, unfortunately for our fuller understanding, the human form had only a minor interest because the gods were not in the image of man and the art was essentially Wet SiS UMN Fig. 25. Typical Elaborated Serpents of the Mayas. The plumed serpent is from Chichen Itza and the one with a human head in its mouth from Yaxchilan. In this example the writhing movements of the serpent’s tail are probably intended by the added scrolls. religious. The gods were at best half human and half animal with grotesque elaborations. The high esthetic qualities were therefore wasted on subjects that appear trivial to many of us. But, as we break away more and more from the shackles of our own artistic conventions, we shall be able to appreciate the many beauties of ancient American sculpture. Fig. 26. Conventional Serpent of the Mayas used for Decorative Purposes: a, body; 6, ventral scale; c, dorsal scale; d, nose; e, nose- plug; f, incisor tooth; g, molar tooth; h, jaw; 7, eye; j, supraorbital plate; k, earplug; 1, ear pendant; m, curled fang; n, tongue; o, lower jaw; p, beard; q, incisor tooth. &4 THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 85 The serpent motive controlled the character of Mayan art and was of first importance in all subse- quent arts in Central America and Mexico. The ser- pent was seldom represented realistically, and yet we may safely infer that the rattlesnake was the prevailing model. Parts of other creatures were added to the serpent’s body, such as the plumes of the trogon or quetzal, the teeth of the jaguar, and the ornaments of man. The serpent was idealized and the lines character- istic of it entered into the delineation of many subjects distinct from the serpent itself. Scrolls and other sinuous details were attached to the serpent’s body and human ornaments such as earplugs, noseplugs, and even headdresses were added to its head. Finally, a human head was placed in the distended jaws. The Mayes may have intended to express the essential human in- telligence of the serpent in this fashion. The serpent with a human head in its mouth doubtless belongs in the same category as the partly humanized gods of Egypt, Assyria, and India. It illustrates the partial assump- tion of human form by a beast divinity. The features combined are so peculiar and unnatural that the in- fluence of Mayan art can be traced far and wide through Central America and Mexico by comparative study of the serpent motive. A typical serpent head in profile (with the human head omitted) as developed by the Mayas for decora- tive purposes is reproduced in Fig. 26 with the parts lettered and named. It will be noted that the lines of interest in this design are either vertical or horizontal, although the parts themselves have sinuous outlines. Two features of the typical serpent’s body enter widely into the enrichment of all kinds of subjects. One of these is the double outline which is derived from the line paralleling the base of the serpent’s body and serv- 86 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA ing to mark off the belly region. The second feature is the small circle applied in bead-like rows to represent scales. The profile serpent head is also seen in scrolls and frets that elaborate many details of dress worn by the human beings carved on the monuments. The front view of the serpent’s head is usually extended to Fig. 27. Upper Part of Serpent Head made into a Fret Orna- ment; a, Ixkun; 6, Quirigua; c, d, g, Copan; e, Naranjo; f, Seibal. fill an oblong panel and is often used to decorate the base of a monument or the facade of a building. There are several monsters closely connected with the serpent that will be discussed as the description proceeds. The Human Figure. The human beings pictured on Mayan monuments are captives, rulers, and priests or worshippers. The captives are poor groveling crea- tures, bound by rope, held by the hair or crushed under foot to fill a rectangular space over which the conqueror stands. The rulers and priests are hard to distinguish from each other, perhaps because the government was largely theocratic and the ruler was looked upon as the | spokesman of divinity. The spear and shield of war served to mark off certain human beings from others who carry religious objects such as the Ceremonial Bar and the Manikin Scepter. | Elaborate thrones on several monuments are canopied over by the arched body of the Two-headed THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 87 Dragon that bears symbols of the planets. Over all is seen the great Serpent Bird with outstretched wings. Upon the throne is seated a human being who may safely be called a king and a line of footprints on the front of the throne may symbolize ascent. On other monuments the commanding personage wears the mask of a god and wields a club to subdue or scatters grain to placate. On the great majority of monuments the human beings, richly attired in ceremonial regalia and carrying a variety of objects, possibly present the great warriors and priests of the day. Many of the early sculptures are stiff and formal, but in a number of in- stances the quality of actual portraiture is convincing. Design, Composition and Perspective. It is dificult to compare directly the graphic and plastic arts of different nations where the subject matter is diverse unless we compare them in accordance with absolute principles of design, composition, and perspec- tive drawing. The Mayas produced one of the few really great and coherent expressions of beauty so far given to the world and their influence in America was historically as important as was that of the Greeks in Europe. Set as we are in the matrix of our own religious and artistic conventions, we find it difficult to approach sympathetically beauty that is overcast with an incomprehensible religion. When we can bring our- selves to feel the serpent symbolism of the Mayan artists as we feel, for instance, the conventional halo that crowns the ideal head of Christ, then we shall be able to recognize the truly emotional qualities of Mayan sculptures. It is generally recognized that design to be successful must contain order of various sorts (in measurements, shapes, directions, tones, colors, etc.). In the simpler forms of decorative art the restrictions of technical 88 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA process, as in basketry, may impose order, but in free- hand sculpture it must come from an educated sense of beauty involving selection and the reproduction of the finest qualities. Design at its highest is embodied in the Mayan hieroglyphs. Given spaces had to be filled” with given symbols and the results attained were uni- formly excellent. Although the influence of the ser- I Aionuerce - if f= I i) Fig. 28. Sculpture on Front of Lintel at Yaxchilan showing Man holding T'wo-Headed Serpent with a Grotesque God’s Head in each of its Mouths. Fig. 29. Types of Human Heads on the Lintels of Yaxchilan. pent led to the great use of tapering flame-like masses in nearly all Mayan designs, still dominant vertical and horizontal lines of interest were maintained. The panel and lintel sculptures show composition | achieved by simple and subtle methods. The sweeping plumes of headdresses were skilfully used to fill in corners, while blocks of glyphs were placed in open THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION SY spaces that might otherwise distract the attention. Many compositions appear overcrowded to us, but this fault decreases with knowledge of the subject matter. oo fie: Fig. 30. Sculpture on Upper Part of Stela 11, Seibal. The man wears a mask of turquoise inlay and an elaborate headdress. Also, the Mayas appear to have painted their sculp- tures so that the details were emphasized by color ° contrast. In perspective as applied to the human figure the Mayas were far ahead of the Egyptians and Assyrians, since they could draw the body in front view and pure Plate XVIII. Stela 13, Piedras Negras. This shattered monument is one of the finest examples of Mayan Sculp- ture, showing a fine sense of composition and a consider- able knowledge of perspective. 90 THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 9] profile without the distortions seen in the Old World. They were even able to make graceful approximations of a three-quarters view, as may beseen in Plate XVIII, where the raising of the nearer shoulder has a distinct perspective value. The Mayan Pantheon. We have seen that during the earliest culture of Mexico and Central America there were no figurines of individualized gods, simply straightforward representations of human beings and animals. With the Mayan culture, however, we enter upon an epoch of rich religious symbolism. The ser- IK Fig. 31. The Ceremonial Bar. A Two-Headed Serpent held in the Arms of Human Beings on Stele: a, Stela P, Copan; 6b, Stela N, Copan. pent, highly conventionalized as we have just seen, and variously combined with elements taken from the quetzal, the jaguar, and even from man himself, appears as a general indication of divinity. The Ceremonial Bar, essentially a two-headed serpent carrying in its mouths the heads of an important god, is one of the earliest religious objects. The heads that appear in the mouths are usually those of a Roman- nosed or of a Long-nosed god. Other representations of divinities are combined with the Two-headed Dragon 92 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA that also has reptilian characters; still others appear as headdresses and masks on human figures. Strange to say, the gods are supplementary to the human figures on Fig. °32., The Manikin Secep- ter, a Grotesque Figure with one Leg modified in- to a Serpent. all the early sculptures. In the codices, however, they are represented apart from man, as engaged in various activi- ties and contests. Mayan religion was clearly organized on a dualistic basis. The powers for good are in a constant struggle with the powers for evil and most of the benevolent divinities have malevolent duplicates. In actual form the godsare partly human, but ordinarily the determining features are grotesque variations from the human face and fig- ure. While beast associations are some- times discernible, they are rarely con- trolling. Sometimes, however, beast gods are represented in unmistakable fashion, good examples being the jaguar, the bat, and the moan bird. All of these have human bodies and animal heads. Fig. 33. The Two-Headed Dragon, a Monster that passes through many Forms in Mayan Sculpture. Copan. The head position in the Mayan pantheon may with some assurance be given to a god who has been called the Roman-nosed god and who is prebably to be identi- THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 93 fied with Itzamna. According to Spanish writers - Itzamna was regarded by the Mayas as the creator and father of all, the inventor of writing, the founder of the Mayan civilization, and the god of light and life. This Zeus of the Mayas is represented in the form of an old man with a high forehead, a strongly aquiline nose, and a distended mouth, toothless or with a single enlarged tooth in front. On the ancient monuments he is fre- quently seen in the mouths of the Ceremonial Bar and also in association with the sun, moon, and the planet Venus. In the codices he is shown as a protector of the Maize God and in other acts beneficial to man. There is, however, a malevolent aspect of this god or possibly another being who imitates his features but not his qualities. This being may be an old woman goddess who wears a serpent headdress and who is associated with destructive floods, the very opposite of life-giving sunshine. Of almost equal importance to the Roman-nosed god is a god whose face is a more or less humanized serpent. This god has been identified with Kukulcan, the Plumed Serpent, and the Mayan equivalent of the Aztecan Quetzalcoatl. On the early monuments this god is shown in connection with the Ceremonial Bar. He also appears at a somewhat later date as the Manikin Scepter, an object in the form of a manikin that is held out by a leg modified into a serpent’s body. Since a celt is usually worn in the forehead of the manikin it has been suggested that this curious object represents a ceremonial battle-ax. The face of the Long-nosed god is frequently worn by high priests and rulers either as a headdress or, more rarely, asa mask. It is possible that this divinity was regarded as primarily a war god but in the codices he is evidently a universal deity of varied powers. Especially he is shown in connection with 94 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA water and maize and it seems likely that his principal function was to cause life-giving rain. A malevolent variant of the Long-nosed god has a bare bone for the lower jaw, a sun symbol on his forehead, and a head- dress consisting of three other symbols. This head is associated with the Two-headed Dragon possibly as a god of death-dealing drought. Fig. 34. Gods in the Dresden Codex: God B, the Long-Nosed God of Rain; God A, the Death God; God G, the Sun God. Ahpuch, the Lord of Death, was the principal malevo- lent god. His body as figured in the codices is a strange compound of skeletal and full-fleshed parts. His head is a skull except for the normal ears. His spinal column is usually bare and sometimes the ribs as well, but the arms and legs are often covered with flesh. As added symbols black spots and dotted lines are sometimes drawn upon his body and a curious device like a per- centage sign upon his cheek. The Death God in com- plete form is rarely shown in the earlier sculptures, although grinning skulls and interlacing bones occur as temple decorations. As has already been pointed out, Mayan religion was strongly dualistic and the evil 'h] Plate XIX. (a) Top of Stela 1 at Yaxchilan, dealing with the Heavens. The Sky God is seen in the center with the moon at the left and the sun at the right. Below these is the Two-Headed Dragon bear- ing planet signs and additional heads of the Sky God; (b) Analogous Detail of Stela 4, Yaxchilan. The moon is at the right and thesun at the left. The figure in the sun is male and that in the moon, female. The faces of the Sky God hang from the lower part of the 'wo-Headed Dragon, being attached to it by symbols of the planet Venus. 95 96 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA powers are usually to be identified by death symbols such as a bare bone for the lower jaw, or the per- centage symbol noted above on the cheek. Death heads of several kinds are frequent in the hieroglyphic inscriptions. The Maize God, fioured so frequently on the ancient monuments and in the Mayan codices may be the same that in the time of the Conquest was called Yum Kaax, Lord of the Harvest. He is represented as a youth with a leafy headdress that is possibly meant to represent an opening ear of maize. The kan sign, a grain of maize, is constantly associated with him. He appears to be at the mercy of the evil deities when not protected by the good ones. Space considerations forbid a further study of Mayan gods. Suffice it to say that several other divinities are shown in the sculptures and codices including a some- what youthful appearing war god, as well as a more mature and grotesque war god called Ek Ahau, the Black Captain. There is an old god with a shell attached to his body, a god with the face of a monkey who is associated with the north star, a god in the form of a frog and another in the form of a bat. In the Spanish accounts we can also glean scanty information concerning Ixchel, Goddess of the Rainbow and mate of Itzamna, Ixtubtun patroness of jade carvers, Ixchebel- yax, patroness of the art of weaving and decorating cloth, ete. The Mayan Time Counts. The passage of time, seen in finer and finer degree in the course of human life, the succession of summer and winter, the waxing and waning moons, the alternation of day and night, the upward and downward sloping of the sun and the swinging dicl of the stars, is a phenomenon that no THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION Q7 human group has failed to notice. Longer periods than those included within the memory of the oldest men (presenting an imperfect reflection of the memory of men still older) are found only in those favored centers where a serviceable system of counting has been de- veloped. Mythology has a content of history but hardly of chronology. ‘Tradition, when organized by the priesthood, may be reasonably dependable for per- haps two hundred years. The year and the month are the basis of all primitive time systems, the former depending on the recurring seasons, the latter on recurring moons. Both of these are expressed in days. Unfortunately, the day is not contained evenly in either the month or the year, nor do these larger time measures_show any simple relation to each other as regards length. The history of the calendar is one of compromise and correction. The Mayan calendars were made possible by: first, the knowledge of astronomical time periods; second, the possession of a suitable notation system; third, the dis- covery of a permutation system of names and numbers. Elements of the Day Count. There is reason to believe that the Mayas had first a lunar-solar calendar of twelve months of thirty days each, making a year of 360 days, and that they reduced the number of days in the formal month to 20 and raised the number of months in the year from 12 to 18. These changes permitted a ‘close adjustment of the units of time with their vigesimal system of counting. With a truer knowledge of the length of the year an extra five day month was added to make a year of 365 days. Beyond this the “leap year” error was calculated but not interpolated. As proof that the lunar month of thirty days preceded the formal month of twenty days, it need only be pointed out that the name for this period, winal, seems 98 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA to be connected with the name for moon, u, and that the hieroglyph for moon has the value, twenty, in the inscriptions and ancient books. Before entering into a fuller discussion of the astro- nomical and notational facts let us turn for a moment to the third fact, the permutation system. The origin of the ‘eyele? known by the Mayan name tzolkin and the 800088 008. GO©0S 00008 Lamat Muluc Oi o)W ag 2) e062 0209860008 Fig. 35. The Twenty Day Signs. The first example in each case 1s taken from the inscriptions and the second from the codices. Aztecan name tonalamatl, book of the days, has never been satisfactorily explained. It is a permutation system with two factors, 13 and 20. The former is a series of numbers (1-13) and the latter a series of twenty names as follows :— 1. Imix 6. Cimi 11. Chuen 16, | -Cib De ile 7. Manik 12. 5 Eb 1%... Cabsan 3. Akbal 8. Lamat 13... Ben 18. Eznab 4) Kan 9. Mulue 4" Tse 19. Cauac 5. Chiechan 0. Oc 15. Men 20. Ahau 'The word cycle is applied in this book to re-entering series, or wheels, of days. These all contain the tzolkin or tonalamatl without a remainder. The word period is applied to fixed numbers that ne not contain the tonalamatl. THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 99 These two series revolve upon each other like two wheels, one with thirteen and the other with twenty cogs. The smaller wheel of numbers makes twenty revolutions while the larger wheel of days is making thirteen revolutions, and after this the number cog and name cog with which the experiment began are again in combination. Thus, a day with the same number and the same name recurs every 13 X20 or 260 days. PERMUTATION TABLE ; | ; =) . | 1 2 - 4 5 6} 7| 8 9}10)11/12)13) 1 | | | ——|—|- |---| |---| |} } 1 Imix.......................| 1] 8} 2| 9] alto} ain) 5|12I 6|13| 7) 1 oy. eS SPR age | 2] 9} 3/10) 4/11] 5/12) 613) 7| 1) 8 2 3 Akbal.....................| 8/10] 4/11] 5{12} 6[13) 7) 1] 8| 2| 9| 3 4 Kan......................| 4{11f 5|12| 6/13} 7| 1) 8| 2| 9} 3/10) 4 5 Chicchan...................| 5/12} 6/13} 7] 1) 8| 2| 9} 3/10) 4/11! 5 ON ciel ce ee ne ssf OA) etl) 8) 2-9)" 310) 4th 512 6 7 Manik....................| 7] 1] 8| 2 9} 3/10) 4/11) 5/12) 6/13) 7 8 Lamat....................| 8) 2| 9) 3/10) 4/11} 5/12) 6/13) 7 1) 8 9 Muluc.....................] 9} 3{10] 4/11} 5]12} 6/13] 7] 1] 8} 2} 9 a RE et ee eee 10) 4/11/ 5)12) 6/13) 7; 1, 8| 2) 9) 3/10 11 Chuen 11) 512} 613| 7 1| 8 2) 9| 3,10) 4/11 12 Eb.. 12,613 7/1 8 2 9 310 411) 512 Se he eee 13] 7| 1} 8| 2} 9] 3/10) 4/11] 5/12! 6/18 SEARS Oe! ore 1) 8) 2) 9| 310) 4|11/ 5|12) 613) 7) 1 ete oe ee i 2) 9) 3/10) 4/11) 5/12) 613) 7) 1) 8) 2 BPM ois eit ns <1 «| SO) A1) SITS) G13} Z|. 1| s 2) 9) 3 17. Caban.....................| 4{11] 5)12| 6|13] 7| 1] 8| 21 9] 3i1ol 4 18 “Eznab......................| 5{12} 6|13| 7} 1| 8| 2} 9} 3/10) 4/11] 5 ET) Sh ee eee 613 7\ 1| 8| 2! 9 3/10) 411 512 6 20 Ahav......................| 7] 1] 8} 2} 9} 3/10} 4{11| 512 613 7 This 260 day cycle corresponds to no natural time period and is an invention pure and simple. It is the most fundamental feature of the Mayan time count and of the time counts of other nations in Mexico and Central America. We may perhaps assume that the twenty names were originally those of the twenty days 100 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA in the modified lunar months. But the thirteen num- bers have no recognized prototype. The formal book of days generally was considered to begin with 1 Imix for the Mayas and with a corresponding day for the other Mexican and Central American nations. But it can be made to begin anywhere and proceed to an equiva- lent station that is always 260 days removed. The Conventional Year. It has been stated that the Mayas arrived at a conventional 365 day year made up of eighteen months of twenty days each plus a short 2g809 Chen ol on | Fal eos ‘g8ecaea rr BSQQSSC RBs Kayab Uayeb Fig. 36. The Nineteen Month Signs of the Mayan Year. ae first example in each case is taken from the inscriptions and the second from the codices. The last details are signs for zero. “ee = eer ee Soares ae ; period of five days that fell amy aie eighteen regular months had been counted. The Mayan month names are as follows :— L;* Pep 7. Yaxkin 13. Mac Pe tet 8. Mol 14. Kankin 3. Zip 9. Chen 15. Muan 4. Zotz 102): Yex 16; Pax 5. Tzec 11. Zac 17. Kayab 6. Xul 12. Ceh 18. Cumhu ' 19. Uayeb (five additional days) THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 101 Since there are twenty days or positions in the month ~and likewise twenty distinct day names in the (zolkin, falling in regular order, it follows that each day would always occupy the same month position were it not for the offset at the end of each year caused by the short Uayeb period. As it is, any day name occupies the same month position during the course of an entire year and a position five days in advance during the course of the following year. Since five is contained four times in twenty there can be only four shifts, the fifth year showing the same arrangement as the first. The following table gives the month positions of each day name during the changes of four consecutive years as these are recorded in the ancient inscriptions. Ik, Manik, Eb, Caban ~ 0, 5, 10, 15 Akbal, Lamat, Ben, Eznab 1 61816 Kan, Muluc, Ix, Cauac 2,7, 12,17 Chicchah, Oc, Men, Ahau 3, 8, 13,18 Imix, Cimi, Chuen, Cib 4,9, 14,19 Thus Ik occupies 0 position the first year, 5, the second year, 10 the third, 15 the fourth, and 0 the fifth. While Manik that belongs to the same set has position 5 the first year, 10 the second, ete. It will be noted that Imix, the first day of the formal permutation of the tzolkin is never the first day of a month. The Calendar Round. But this assignment of particular day names to particular places in the month does not close the problem. Each day name is asso- ciated in the tzolkin, or permutation, with a day number. While it is true that each day can occupy only four month positions in as many years, it must be remem- bered that the day numbers associated with these names can run the whole gamut of 13 changes. Thus, although Ik must always occupy the fifth position in the months during a certain year, nevertheless it will have Plate XX. Scheme of the Mayan Calendar as presented in the Codex Tro-Cortesianus. In the center is Itzamna, the God of: the Sky, and his spouse, under what has been called the celestial tree. The band of hieroglyphs that frames in this picture contains the twenty day signs of the Mayan month. The figures on the out- side are arranged in four groups, according to the four directions of the compass. At the top or east we again see Itzamna and his mate. In the north, or right hand quarter, human sacrifice is shown and the Death God sits opposite the God of War. In the east and in the south are also shown pairs of divinities. A series of dots running from one day sign to another covers the tzolkin or 260 day cycle of names and numbers. a THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 1038 numbers which fall in the sequence 1, 8, 2, 9, 3, 10, 4, 11, 5, 12, 6, 18, 1, ete. The result of the added element in the permutation is that a particular day with a particular number can occupy a particular month posi- tion once every 13X4 or 52 years. In other words, the eycle of variations runs through the least common mul- tiple of 260 (the permutation) and 365 (the conven- tional year) or 18,980 days. This cycle is commonly known as the Calendar Round. A Mayan day fixed in a month has four parts to its name, thus, 11 Ahau 18 Mae. But after all this condi- tion of affairs is not very different from our own. We say Tuesday, July 4, and we mean, ‘Tuesday, the second day of the week, falls on the fourth day of the month of July.’”’ Similarly the Mayan date 11 Ahau 18 Mac may be read. ‘‘The day Ahau, bearing the index number 11 (or, being the eleventh day in the thirteen day week) is found in the 18th position in the month Mac.” Were it not for leap year the European date given above would recur after seven years: as it is, the cycle is somewhat irregular and no actual use is made of it. So far we have considered two sorts of Mayan dates, first the tzolkin date, recurring every 260 days, second the calendar round date recurring every 18,980 days. Before we can understand the most important dates of all, namely, those of the ‘‘ Long Count,’ which record the total number of days since a beginning day called 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu, located far in the past, we must direct our attention to the matter of numbers and notation. Mayan Numbers. The three most common numerical systems in use in the world are all derived from man’s anatomy. The quinary system is based on counting the fingers of one hand, the decimal system on 104 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA counting those of both hands and the vigesimal system which prevailed in Central America, is based on count- ing all the fingers and all the toes. The vigesimal system is seen in imperfect form in our count of scores, where seventy years are three score and ten. The Mayan name for one was hun: they had simple names to 9 and composite ones from 10 to 19, much as in English, and twenty was hun kal, one score. The ascending values in the vigesimal scale were as fol- lows: Mayan Numbers Arabic Equivalents hun i 20 hun =1 kal 20 20 kal =1 bak 400 20% baker i= Topic 8,000 20 pic =1 cabal 160,000 20 cabal =1 kinchil 3,200,000 20 kinchil =1 alau 64,000,000 20 alau =1 hablat 1,280,000,000 They invented signs for zero and discovered the principle of ‘‘local value”? in the writing down of numbers centuries before these ideas (which are funda- mental to higher mathematics) were known in the Old @e®e ° se Deceit e eo0e a a re ro 5 o J LO LE Fig. 37. Bar and Dot Numerals of the Mayas. World. The notation of numbers had its simpler and more complicated phase. In the simpler phase 1 was represented by a dot, 2 by two dots, 5 by a bar, 6 by a bar and dot, 15 by three bars, etc. The commonest sign for zero was a shell while a picture of the moon stood for twenty. In the more elaborate notation a series of twenty faces of gods represented the numerals from 0 to 19. | THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 105 The straight vigesimal system was doubtless used by the Mayas in ordinary counting, but in counting time a very important change was introduced in the third position. Also the names were modified: hwn was called kin which means sun or day. In the second position kal was called uinal which means month and 18 of these were taken to form a tun, stone, which was the third unit. The fun then had a value of 18x 20=360 days, making a conventional year about five and a quarter days less than a true year. Twenty tuns made a kal- tun or katun and above this period the numeral system proceeded as before and in the ascending values the names already given were merely combined with tun, if Gates is right in his clever suggestion. For years it has been customary to speak-of the fifth period as cycle for want of a native term: this will now be called baktun. One hablatun, the highest period with a name, has the astonishing value of 460,800,000,000 days. However, the highest number which has come down to us records only 1,841,639,800 days, or about five million years. Needless to say it is not historical. In our decimal system the number 347,981, for in- stance, is really :— 3 x 100000 4 x 10000 jae 1000 °. x 100 a 10 Ty. 1 When written out in a horizontal line each “ position”’ has a value ten times that of the ‘‘position”’ to the right of it. It is understood that a digit which stands in a ‘position ”’ is to be multiplied by 1, 10, 100, 1000, ete., as the case may be. The Mayas, using the principle of position, ordinarily write their bar and dot numerals in 106 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA columns. But we can partially transcribe a Mayan number in imitation of our own system by marking dashes between the positions or periods. The number in five positions given below is transcribed as 9.12.16.7.8. —— 9 x 144000 1,296,000 *—__* 12° x 7200 86,400 16 x 360 5,760 ee 7 x 20 140 eee 28 ax 1 8 1,388,308 a » Fig. 38. Face Numerals found in Mayan Inscriptions. In most cases these are the faces of gods. Reading from left to right: the values are 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10. Fig. 39. The Normal Forms of the Period Glyphs. Reading from left to right: batun, katun, tun, uinal, kin. : Fig. 40. Face Forms of Period Glyphs. From left to right: introduc- ing glyph, baktun, katun, tun, uinal, kin. We read this date: 9 baktuns (or cycles), 12 katuns, 16 tuns, 7 uinals, and 8 kins. It is convenient to re- member that a tun is a little less than a year, a katun a THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION LO7 little less than 20 years and a baktun a little less than 400 years. But the count is really of days, not years, and is made from a uniform beginning day, far in the past which marks the Mayan Era. Although the numerical values were expressed by position alone in some ceses, in others use was made of Period Glyphs which made assurance doubly sure. These period glyphs represented the basic value of the positions which were to be multiphed by the accom- panying numerals. For examples see Figs. 39 and 40. The Long Count. On many early monuments of the Mayas are found dates which record a number of days running into the fifth position, from an era long before the actual beginnings of Mayan history. These are called Initial Series dates because they usually follow immediately after.the so-called Introducing Glyph. The starting point in the count is always a day 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu and the inscriptions not only record the elapsed days since this starting point but also the name and number of the resulting day and its position in the month, the permutation cycle and the calendar rounds turning unceasingly. An example of a typical Initial Series date is given herewith as well as a Secondary Series which is added to the Initial Series to reach a Period Ending date—that is a ‘‘round number’”’ in the Mayan numerical system. The True Year. So far we have been concerned primarily with the counting of days—the astronomical time unit determined by the revolution of the earth upon its axis. Now, although the day is not contained evenly in the other astronomical time periods (the month, the year, and the apparent revolutions of the planets) the Mayan scholars made some remarkable correlations of the heterogeneous data. 108 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA The true tropical year is determined by the revolution of the earth around the sun and by the recurring seasons. No agricultural people could neglect this time period with its obvious relation to planting and harvest. Reference has already been made to the notational 360 day year (tun) and to the conventional 365 day year (haab). The haab was a vague year running ahead of the true year by the accumulating amount of the days which we intercalate on leap years: 1508 haab equaled 1507 tropical years. The Mayan months like those of the ancient Egyptians slowly advanced through the seasons. But the Mayas calculated an almost exact correction for the excess of the true year over the vague 365 day year. The excess amounts to about .24 of a day and their correction seems to have been one day in four years for ordinary purposes and 25 days in 104 years over longer stretches of time. ‘This latter correction is more accurate than was that of the Julian calendar and nearly as accurate as that of the present Gregorian calendar put into service as late as 1582. But if the “leap year” days were not interpolated, of course, the named months had no fixed positions in the year but swung slowly round the circle. Accord- ing to the table of Landa, compiled about 1554, the month Pop, which seems to have been regarded as the first of the year in ancient as. well as modern times, began on July 16 O.S. Outside of the Mayan area the retrogression of the months is attested by actual statements of early Spanish writers. But the conventional 365 day year was, after all, sufficiently accurate to serve the needs of agriculturists and since retrogression was only about one day in four years; associations between the months and the seasons would hold true for the average lifetime. rare" Introducing Glyph Initial Series 9 baktuns (cycles). 14 katuns 13 tuns (written 12 by error) 4 uinals 17 kins 12 Caban (day) as PP Pe Supplementary Series glyph F (a) glyph D, (b) glyph C (a) glyph X, (b) glyph B (a) glyph A (30 day lunar month) (b) 5 Kayab (month) Soo mx peed eed Explanatory Series 11, 12, 13 and 14a, possibly explain the dates * Secondary Series 14b, 3 kins, 13 uinals 15a, 6 tuns (to be added) Period Ending Date 16. 4 Ahau 13 Yax (9.15.0.0.0) Plate XXI. Typical Mayan Inscription. 109 110 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA The true length of the year was probably obtained by observations of sunrise or sunset on summer or winter solstices. From some fixed point of observation, such as the doorway of a temple, the extreme point on the horizon reached by the sun in its northward or south- ward march could be accurately determined. Over a period of years the average solstitial period (tropical year) could be readily obtained if only the days were recorded and the intervals compared. Although we ourselves depend mostly upon the year count rather than the day count we must remember that the annual calendar was only one of several that the Mayas brought into relation to the inviolable count of days. The lunar and Venus calendars will be con- sidered presently. The Lunar Calendar. The revolution of the moon around the earth was used by the Mayas in what may be called the lunar calendar. It has already been ex- plained that an early lunar period of thirty days seems to have been arbitrarily changed to a notational one of twenty days. Now the exact duration of a lunar revo- lution is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 2.87 seconds. If the customary period of 29.5 days is taken for con-— venience there is an error of about two full days in five years. Such an error was too great to pass the Mayan calendar makers. On pages 51 to 58 of the Dresden Codex their solution is recorded unmistakably. Poua-— ® c ©onoa & WN w= 9 11 Hieroglyphs Ys (0) 1 Ahau 4 4 3 1 4 2 1@) (@) 11 Ahau 3 Ahau 2 2 16 8 14 12 4 (@) (0) 5 Ahau 10 Ahau 2 Ahau 1 4 16 6 4 ie) (0) 12 Ahau 4 Ahau 9 Diagram showing partial reduction of Mayan numbers into Arabic Numbers in the calculation shown on page 24 of the Dresden Codex (Plate XXII). A B Cc D E F G 151,840 113,880 75,920 37,960 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 185,120 68,900 33,280 9,100 Hieroglyphs 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 35,040 32,120 29,200 26,280 6 Ahau 11 Ahau 3 Ahau 8 Ahau fe) —_ = =a @ > > OoOOWW ® ¢ —_ Ww iN —_ a ooONn @ Ono@ a > hau 23,360 13 Ahau 20,440 5 Ahau 17,520 10 Ahau 14,600 2 Ahau 1,366,560]1,364,360 11,680 8,760 5,840 2,920 7 Ahau 12 Ahau 4 Ahau 9 Ahau 8 Cumhu/|18 Kayab Diagram showing complete reduction into Arabic numbers of the calculation shown on page 24 of the Dresden Codex (Plate XXII). 119 120 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA or 12 x 2920. To be sure the scribe made a slight error in one place, writing a 5 for an 8 but this is caught up by the day signs 9 Ahau, 4 Ahau, 7 Ahau, 12 Ahau, etc., that fall at regular intervals of 2920 days. From section 3, the calculation jumps to section 1 where the numbers in the original are partly destroyed. They have, however, been restored with perfect assur- ance since the days in all instances are 1 Ahau and there- fore must be separated by multiples of 260 days. The number in G1 has been restored as 5-5-8-0 or 37,960 or 13x 2920. It contains 260 an even number of times and therefore every successive period of 37,960 days Sip, Sf OO ie = S , i _ 4 v y "oy Ley \ as I Ae a z = we —— el Lili Md LULLED LLL TOLL Fig. 45. Mayan Ceremony as represented in the Dresden Codex. The figure at the left beats a drum while the one on the right plays a flageolet. The sound is indicated by scrolls. The head on the pyramid is that of the Maize God and it rests upon the sign caban, meaning earth. begins with the same day, 1 Ahau. It also equals 13x8x3865 days or 104 years and 13x5x584 days or sixty-five revolutions of Venus. The three numbers to the left in Fl, El, and D1 are respectively 2, 3, and 4 times 37,960. The last number, 151,840 days is therefore equal to 416 years or exactly 8 | calendar rounds of 18,980 days. THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 121 The numbers in section 2 are more difficult to explain but they possibly have to do with corrections and cor- relations of astronomical periods. If we add to 1 Ahau 18 Kayab the number of days in E2, (68900), we arrive at a day 1 Ahau 18 Mac. This day is prominent in more detailed calculations elsewhere in the Dresden Codex. If we add to the same 1 Ahau 18 Kayab the number in D2 we arrive at 1 Ahau 18 Uo recorded at the bottom of C. Space permits no further explanation but the reader will see from the foregoing the method of experiment and cross checking that must be applied to the decipherment of the Mayan manuscripts. Fortun- ately, the relationships of numbers are absolute and the coincidences between the recorded numbers and astronomical periods are toe close and frequent to be dismissed as accidental. In addition to rational calculations dealing with astronomy one sees in the Mayan manuscripts many arrangements of the tzolkin supposed to bring to light good and bad days and to forecast events. A section of the Dresden Codex showing a condensed ¢zolkin is pre- sented along with a diagram of its parts. At the top and right are seventeen hieroglyphs containing the symbols of the four directions, and of at least three of the princi- pal gods. At the right is a column of five day signs with the number 3 at the head of the column. The permuta- tion is divided into five parts of fifty-two days each and each part is subdivided into four groups of three days each. It begins with 3 Akbal the day sign at the top of the column and after the four subdivisions of thirteen days each have been counted we arrive at the day 3 Men, the second day sign in the column. The count is repeated till the 260 days have been exhausted and we come back again to 3 Akbal. In the diagram the red numbers of the codex are represented by Roman “ = , : — ze ‘ ; 4 2 1 2 5 6 9 10 East *k North * West ae Ill 3 4 7 8 1 12 God B + Woman | Good Days God G t . 13 III 13 Ill 13 I God B—rain and sky Goddess with serpent God K— benevolent god of good powers. headdress possibly con- | sun god. If space had Holds Kan (maize) | nected with floods, been larger God E (the sign in his hand, Holds Kan sign in hand. | maize god) would prob- ably have been drawn next. Plate XXIII. (a) Detail of the Dresden Codex showing Tzolkin used in Divination; (6) Analysis of the above Tzolkin, according to Foérstemann. 122 THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 123 numerals and the black numbers by Arabic numerals. Since the count in this example begins with 3 and the addition is always 13, or exactly one round of numbers, the resultant days always have the number 3. The three pictures of gods give us an inkling into the significance of this particular table of chances. All of the gods carry the kan or maize sign in their hands. The first god is the benevolent rain god and the third is the benevolent sun god. Between them is seated the malevolent goddess of floods with a serpent on her head. The maize god is not shown but his hieroglyph is given. This tzolkin probably deals with agriculture and may be an attempt to determine lucky days for planting. Bases of Mayan Chronology. Early attempts to bring about a concordance of Mayan and European chronology met with widely varying results. Most of these attempts were made by developing a single line of evidence and some were based on assumptions that can now be disproved. But no single line of evidence should be deemed sufficient to decide this all important ques- tion. In recent years, however, the more pretentious correlations have struck very close to the mark. Mr. Morley in his Jnscriptions at Copan has brought a wealth of dates to bear upon the problem, while the writer of this handbook has been able to show an exact agreement between the Mayan, Aztecan, Cakchiquel, and Quiché calendars in use in the sixteenth century, as well as a structural correlation between the ancient and late time counts of the Mayas themselves. An effort will be made to explain in a few paragraphs the essential arguments. The general course of Mayan history is indicated unmistakably by three principal Plate XXIV. Development in Style of Carving at Copan. Left to right: Stela 9 (9.10.10.0.0, 383 A. D.); Stela 5 (9.13.15.0.0, 447 A.D.); Stela N (9.16.10.0.0, 502 A. D.); Stela H (9.17.12.0.0, 523 A. D.); Bottom: Details of architecture showing analogous development. 124 THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 125 lines of evidence capable of being correlated with each other. These are:— Ist, Natural developments of sculpture, architecture, ete. 2nd, Inscribed dates on monuments. 3rd, Traditional history in the Books of Chilam Balam. A fourth important line of evidence remains to be de- veloped in the future. This relates to astronomical time. There is more than a suspicion that the Mayas were able to predict eclipses and there is a strong possi- bility that planetary conjunctions and other calculable phenomena were also recorded. Astronomical checks on chronology may possibly appear after a careful study of the calculations relating to Venus. Natural developments in sculpture, etc., validate the contemporaneous and therefore historical character of many inscribed dates. In fact, the relative chronology of the cities of the first great Mayan period, covering over 600 years, is now upon a very certain basis. After the close of this period the dates were no longer in- scribed. We are still able to indicate the course of change in the arts but we cannot express this in terms of years. Finally, in the books of Chilam Balam we have a dependable series of traditions affecting a considerable part of the Mayan nation over a stretch of 1400 years previous to the Spanish Conquest. Now it seems certain that the traditional record overlaps the inscribed record so far as definite dating is concerned while the natural developments give aid and comfort to the simplest and most direct correlation. Historical Development of Art. The sequence of Mayan monuments can be determined from a study of the style of sculpture. Beginning with the human a BEL) ‘ : fs ‘ a x. st Sawer es 4 ee ee oe ee Fig. 46. The Front Head of the Two-Headed Dragon on Stelz at Piedras Negras showing the Increase in Flamboyant Treatment. The interval between (a) and (b) is 125 years, that between (b) and (c) is 45 years. THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 127 form we find at Copan a remarkably homogeneous series of stelee on which a royal or priestly personage stands erect and in front view. A Ceremonial Bar is held symmetrically in the two arms and the body is partly covered with rich and elaborate ornament. The amount of relief, the proportions of the body, the forms of the Ceremonial Bar, etce., all pass through a harmoni- ous development. The earliest monuments show a erude block-like carving of the face, with protruding eyes, while the latest monuments have fully rounded eontours. At Tikal the stele show, for the most part, human figures in profile, but unmistakable development can be seen in general quality of carving as well as in specific details. | In making comparisons in art it is always necessary to consider similar things. At many other Mayan cities than the two named above it is possible to obtain satis- factory evidence of sequence in art forms by cutting out similar details from different masses. Thus at Nar- anjo when we examine all the Ceremonial Bars we find a remarkable development of flamboyant detail on the later monuments. At Quirigua the faces on the tops of the altars may be compared with the same result. At Piedras Negras the heads of the Two-headed Dragon that occur in exactly similar positions on four monu- ments likewise show a steady modification towards flamboyancy as may be seen from Fig. 46, where the front heads are put side by side. Still other lines of evidence on historical sequence are to be gained from a study of architecture. Not only is it possible to determine the general developments that hold true of the entire Mayan area but also in a given city it is sometimes possible to arrange the buildings in their order of erection according to dependable criteria, both decorative and structural. 128 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA The earliest temples have narrow vaulted rooms, heavy walls, and a single doorway. The rooms increase in width, the walls decrease in thickness, the doorways multiply till the spaces between them be- come piers and finally columns. The support for the heavy roof comb taxed the structural ingenu- ity of the Mayan architects. The solving of this problem is marked by successive advances and since mechanical sci- ence goes for- ward rather than backward the relative order of structures is fairly certain. Moreover, many buildings are closely associat- ed with dated Fig.48. Jaguar in Fig. 47. Grotesque monuments, tab- Dresden Codex with Face on the Back of lets, lintels, or a WaterLily attached Stela B, Copan. stele. Still an- to Forehead. : other evidence of architectural sequence is seen in structures that have been enlarged by the addition of wings or by the enclosing of the old parts under new masonry. Dated Monuments. We have seen that many monuments carry hieroglyphic inscriptions containing dates in the Mayan system of counting time. It is im- possible to read the texts that accompany these dates. But it is a remarkable fact that when we arrange the THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 129 monuments in their artistic order we find that the in- scribed dates in the great majority of cases fall in the same order. This leads us to conclude that the dates are practically contemporaneous with the carving and setting up of the monu- ments. Now the above is especially true when the in- scription gives a simple In- itial Series date. When more than one date is given the historic one appears in most instances to be the latest, but in a few instances it ap- pears to be a specially em- phasized intermediate date. In addition, then, to con- temporaneous dates there are some that refer to the past and others that refer to the future. Fig.49. Late Sculpture from Some writers have assum- Chichen Itza. The headdress ed that the stele and other resembles that worn by the Jnscribed monuments were rulers on the highlands of primarily time markers set Mexico. up at the end of hotun (or five year) periods. This seems an unnecessarily narrow view. We can demonstrate that some inscriptions deal with astronomical facts covering long stretches of time. It is also apparent that many of the sculptures represent conquests and it is extremely likely that portraits of actual rulers are to be seen in certain carvings. It would be too much to ex- pect events to happen regularly at the end of time periods and as a matter of fact we find at different cities repeated dates that do not occupy such positions. 130 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA These repeated dates would seem to recall events of special importance to the city in question. The running co-ordination between the apparent order of the artistic styles and inscribed dates permits us to measure very accurately the rate of change in art which was rapid, indeed, at certain times. The style of carving, on the other hand, enables us to put into definite 52 year periods many of the calendar round dates—if these are to be regarded as contempor- aneous. The result is that for the First Empire, as it has been called, there is an exceedingly accurate chron- ology. After the fall and abandonment of the great southern cities dates are rare and we have to fall back upon remnants of history preserved after the coming of the Spaniards. Books of Chilam Balam. The Books of Chilam Balam are digests of ancient chronicles preserved in the Mayan language, but in Spanish script. They cover a continuous record of 68 katuns (periods of 7200 days) before the coming of the Spaniards to Yucatan in 1517. The events are recorded as occurring in such and such a katun, these katuns being designated by a day Ahau associated with a number 1-13, falling in the peculiar sequence 13, f1, 9,7, 5, 3, 1, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, after which there is a repeat. Now this is exactly the sequence of the numbers combined with the day Ahau on the termi- nal days of the katuns in the Long Count, and we as- sume that these katuns are actual round numbers in the Long Count of days running from the original 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu. But the period instead of being called by its serial number in the notation of days is called by its terminal day. The Mayas, at all times, laid stress on the period-ending days. This Short Count may be compared to our own use of ’22 for 1922, which is . a ee + tjes THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 131 accurate enough for a hundred years, and with the miss- ing part supplied becomes a part of the normal chronological record. But the U kahlay katunob or ‘record of the katuns’’, has a cycle of 13x 7200 days or about 256 years. It begins with a Katun 8 Ahau, which is identified on good grounds with the important date at the very beginning of Mayan greatness, namely, 9.0.0.0.0, 8 Ahau 13 Ceh. Each return to Katun 8 Ahau is called a ‘‘ doubling back of the katuns’’, that is, a cycle. Using the katun record and counting back from the Katun 2 Ahau which came to an end about the time the Spaniards made their first formal landing in Yucatan, we arrive at 176 A.D. as the date of the first katun in the Books of Chilam Balam. Unfortunately, the statements of events accompanying this time record are quite meager, but we do find some of the outstanding facts in the history of Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and Mayapan. Correlation with Christian Chronology. Chichen Itza is the only ancient city mentioned by name in the chronicles at which an inscribed Initial Series date has been found. If this inscription is put in the first recorded occupation of the city a bond is established entirely in agreement with the one just discussed when 9.0.0.0.0, 8 Ahau 13 Ceh is declared equivalent to the first Katun 8 Ahau of the chronicles. The day-for-day correlation necessitates the arrange- ment and examination of much detailed proof. There are statements in native and Spanish documents about the ends of tuns and katuns, and about the Year-Bearers which were the first days of the years. Bishop Landa gives a Mayan year with its Spanish equivalent, day for day. Then there is the record of the Aztecan calendar of the Valley of Mexico and the Cak- 132 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA chiquel and Quiché calendars of Guatemala. All of these calendars prove to be identical and an equation is established by which Katun 2 Ahau is found to end on July 26, Julian Calendar, 1516, and to be equivalent to 12.8.0.0.0, 2 Ahau 3 Pop in the Long Count. According to this the first day of the Mayan Era is November 10, 3485 B.C. But the earliest date on a monument, which can be regarded as historical, falls a century before the time of Christ. Summary of Mayan History. A brief summary of Mayan history is given below :— PROTOHISTORIC PERIOD Before 176 A.D.—9.0.0.0.0 During this period the calendar and hieroglyphic systems were being developed. ‘The earliest date is the somewhat doubtful one on the Tuxtla Stat- uette (96 B.C.). The next earliest date is the assured one on the Leiden Plate (61 A.D.). Several early monuments at a site in northern Guatemala called Uaxactun have recently been discovered by Mr. 8. G. Morley. They carry dates in the eighth cycle. EARLY PERIOD 176 A.D. to 373 A.D.—9.0.0.0.0 to 9.10.0.0.0 During this period the great cities of the south had their start. Enormous mounds were erected and temples were built upon them. Public squares were laid out and in these were set up stele and altars. The earliest deciphered date at the great city of Tikal is 9.2.0.0.0 (216 A.D.) on Stela 24. Several monu- ments at this city are carved in a still earlier style. The earliest dates at Copan follow closely on those of Tikal. THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 133 later. The carving throughout this period is crude and angular. The profile presentation of the human figure is better handled by the early artists than is front view presentation. The principal conventions of Mayan art seem to have been fixed during the protohistoric period and the serpent was much used as a motive of decoration during the early period. It seems likely that the archaic pottery art of the arid highlands, discussed in the previous chapter, was still being made when Mayan art began its remarkable rise. The transitional types as regards the modeling of the human face and figure are doubtless to be assigned to the first three centuries of the Christian Era. MippLe PERIOD 373 A.D. to 472 A.D.—9.10.0.0.0 to 9.15.0.0.0 Some of the most beautiful works of art belong to the middle period. While archaism did not actually dis- appear till the end of this period there is a certain purity of style and straightforwardness of presentation about many of these early sculptures. Flamboyancy isnot apparent. At Copanthe Great Mound was begun during this period and this enormous undertaking doubt - less absorbed so much energy that few stele were set up. The best series of monuments from the middle period are seen at Naranjo and Piedras Negras. GREAT PERIOD 472 A.D.-to 620 A.D. A short brilliant period followed in which many cities flourished. In addition to the cities already mentioned there were Quirigua, Ixkun, Seibal, Holmul, Nakum, Cancuen, Yaxchilan, Palenque, etc. The art passes through some interesting changes, becoming more com- plex in certain features and less complex in others. The 134 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA architecture makes great advances. Rooms become wider, walls thinner, and forms more refined and pleas- ing. The calculations in the inscriptions deal more and more with complicated astronomical subjects and historical Initial Series dates become less and _ less common but many dates of the calendar round and period ending types are given. This brillant epoch seems to have come to an end through civil war, social decadence, or perhaps an overwhelming epidemic. There is evidence that yellow fever swept over Central America before the coming of Europeans. The refer- ences in the chronicles to this early period are very brief. The settlement of Bacalar is recorded as well as the discovery of Chichen Itza. An Initial Series in- scription at the latter site aids in the correlation of the ancient dates with European chronology. TRANSITION PERIOD 620 A.D. to 980 A.D. The early Mayan cities were abandoned about 600 A.D. and a general shift towards the north took place. Architecture was still kept up but pictorial sculpture practically disappeared. Certain cities south of Uxmal probably date from this transitional period, examples being Hochob and Dsibilnocae. At Xcalumkin there is an Initial Series date which belongs in the Transition Period, but the reading is uncertain. The architectural styles form the only evidence of artistic sequence availa- ble, although if excavations were conducted it is possible that pottery would also help. In the chronicles this period falls, for the most part, after the first abandon- ment of Chichen Itza and while the Mayas were hold- ing the land of Chakanputun. This land may be the central portion of the Yucatan peninsula. THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 135 PERIOD OF THE LEAGUE OF MAYAPAN 980 A.D. to 1200 A.D. This period is characterized by a noteworthy re- vival of architecture occurring in northern Yucatan. According to the chronicles the land of Chakanputun was abandoned by the tribe of Mayas known as the Itzas and Chichen Itza was re-established. About the same time Uxmal and’ Mayapan were also founded and a league between these three principal cities was instituted. Many other cities, such as Kabah, Labna, Sayil, and Izamal also seem to have flourished at this time but we have no traditions of any except Izamal. The architectural styles of-decoration during this period are more formal than those of earlier times. The mask panel, a face reduced to a rectangular area and built up mosaic-like out of separately carved blocks, is the most important motive but there is also a great use of geometric figures such as fret meanders, banded columns, and imitation diagonal lattice work. At Ux- mal and Chichen Itza are found highly modified and scarcely recognizable examples of profile mask panels such as occur in realistic forms in earlier cities. Several of the large communal buildings show different stages of growth. Several buildings at Uxmal and Chichen Itza are dated by inscriptions. Periop OF MEXICAN INFLUENCE 1200 A.D. to 1450 A.D. This period les between the first serious outbreak of civil war under the league of the three cities and the final destruction of Mayapan about a hundred years before the Spaniards settled at Mérida. The civil war was begun by a warrior called Hunac Ceel and Chichen Itza was loser. This chief seems to have called 136 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA for aid upon seven foreigners with Mexican names. These foreigners may have later acquired Chichen Itza as the spoils of war. There is no definite statement to this effect, but the architecture and art of Chichen Itza show a great and sudden influx of new ideas that are characteristic of the Valley of Mexico. No other city of this region has so many of these intrusive features. An instance is the Great Ball Court with its connected temples. The ball court is found in many Mexican cities where it had a strong religious significance but it is absent from any of the great Mayan cities with the exception of Chichen Itza and Uxmal. Sculptures and hieroglyphs in the style of the Mexican highlands also occur in quantity at Chichen Itza. No one can state definitely the length of this Toltecan supremacy on Mayan soil, but it probably was not for long and pos- sibly came to an end before the middle of the fourteenth century. The cities in the Valley of Mexico to which this intrusive culture is to be ascribed are those of the Toltecan period, such as Tula, Teotihuacan, and Cholula. MopERN PERIOD 1450 to the present day After the fall of Mayapan, the Mayas seem to have been divided into many warring factions. All the great cities were abandoned although the temples were still regarded as sacred. Of course, stone construction was still prevalent as we know from some of the Spanish descriptions of towns on the coast. Learning was still maintained by the nobles and the priests. But there was not the centralized authority necessary for the keeping of such luxurious capitals as existed in the old days. The Itzas, in part at least, returned to one of their ancient seats in the south, founding the island THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 137 town of Tayasal in Lake Peten. Here Mayan culture was preserved until 1697. At the present time certain ancient ideas still persist as has already been stated in connection with the ethnology of the Lacandone Indi- ans. Upon the western highlands there are preserved traditions which concern the Quichés, Cakchiquels, and other Mayan tribes, but the history does not go back for more than two hundred years before the Spanish con- quest. All in all, there is little to be said in favor of the frequent plaint that the coming of the white man snuffed out a culture that promised great things. The golden days of the Mayan civilization had already passed, and, if we may judge by the history of other nations, would never have returned. SET ‘louuvul A]op10 Uv UL S}INOD PUNOLG posuvIIe 9B SpuNoUT oY], “YON oy} WO, UVGTY OJUOTY JO MoIA [eIOUOD “AYXYX OIG CHAPTER III THE MIDDLE CIVILIZATIONS HE influence of the Mayan civilization when at iT: its height (400 to 600 A.D.) may be traced far beyond the limits of the Mayan area. Ideas in art, religion, and government that were then spread broadeast served to quicken nations of diverse speech and a series of divergent cultures resulted. Most of these lesser civilizations were at their best long after the great Mayan civilization had declined, but one or two were possibly contemporary. It will be the aim in the present chapter to emphasize the indebtedness of these lesser civilizations to the Mayas as well as to com- ment upon their individual characters. We will first proceed northwest into Mexico and then southeast into the Isthmus of Panama. The environ- ment under which the Mayas developed their arts of life continues in narrowing bands westward along the Gulf of Mexico and southward across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The most westerly Mayan city of im- portance seems to have been Comalcalco. But there is also a large ruin near San Andres Tuxtla.and it may be significant that the earliest dated object of the Mayas (the Tuxtla Statuette) came from this region. In other words, the cradle of Mayan culture may have been in this coastal belt where arid and humid conditions exist side by side and where the figurines of the archaic type are found together with those of the Mayas. Unfortu- nately, the archzology of this part of Mexico has been little studied and we are compelled to go farther up the coast, to the Totonacs or farther inland to the Zapotecs before we can find material for comparisons. 139 OFT ‘SULOOY PYAL[-]]9D [[BUIg puv suolyvpunog [[eA, SUIMOYS UBQTY o}UOPY JO T1eJOq “TAXX 4d THE MIDDLE CIVILIZATIONS 141 Zapotecan Culture. In the State of Oaxaca the Zapotecan Indians attained to a high degree of civiliza- tion, but a study of their culture shows they were pro- foundly indebted to the Mayas for many ideas. Monte Alban, the White Mountain, overlooking the modern City of Oaxaca was the principal archeological site in point of size and may have been the ancient capital. It was abandoned before the coming of the Spaniards, however, and Mitla appears to have taken its place. Fig. 50. Comparison of Mayan and Zapotecan Serpent Heads. The first two examples are from Palenque and the second two from Monte Alban. Unfortunately no extensive traditions have come down to us to help in the restoration of Zapotecan history, nor in that of the neighboring Mixtecs. Al- though the art, hieroglyphic writing, and calendar system were pretty clearly derived from the Mayas, nevertheless there was time and opportunity for these to develop interesting characters of their own. It is impossible to tell from the record whether the Zapotecs ever embarked on a career of empire: the area in which the characteristic products are found is practically limited to the area at present occupied by the tribe. A single beautiful temple at the famous ruin of Xochicalco, far to the northwest of the Zapotecan area (see p. 158) does show points of close similarity in sculptural art. Monte Alban and Mitla stand in strong contrast to each other, the first crowning a mountain ridge, the second occupying a valley site. Monte Alban has no 142 _ MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA buildings intact, but shows a vast assemblage of enormous pyramids and platforms. Mitla has only one small pyramid, but boasts a series of finely preserved temples on low platform bases. In Monte Alban we find monolithic monuments comparable to the stele of the Mayas, and carrying hieroglyphic inscriptions: also pottery figurines and jade amulets in a style which follows rather closely the models developed in the early cities of the humid lowlands. At Mitla there are none of these things: instead, the architectural dec- oration shows a most interesting use of textile designs treated in a mosaic of cut stones. It is apparent then that a long record of high culture is to be found in the Zapotecan field. At Monte Alban there are one or two narrow vaulted chambers in mounds, but on the tops of the mounds the few excavations have disclosed only simple cell-like rooms which probably had flat roofs. Some hints of ancient architectural decoration can be picked up here and there. Figures similar to those modeled in bold relief on the fronts of the cylindrical funeral urns (see frontispiece) seem to have been used over doorways, somewhat after the fashion of the Mayan mask panels. Fig. 51. Bar and Dot Numerals combined with Hieroglyphs on Zapotecan Monuments. The hieroglyphs that are found on the stele of Monte Alban and on stone slabs from other sites, resemble the Mayan hieroglyphs in the use of bar and dot numerals, but the day and month signs have never been identified Plate XXVII. Zapotecan Art: Incense Burners, Funerary Vases of Portrait Type, Cruciform Tomb with Geometric Decoration 143 144 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA with either the Mayan or Aztecan system. Lintels with lines of hieroglyphs on the outer edge have been found in burial chambers at Cuilapa and Xoxo. The forms at the former site are clearly and beautifully drawn, while at the latter site they are degenerate and probably merely decorative. In Zapotecan funerary urns a close connection with Mayan art can easily be demonstrated. The urns are cylindrical vessels concealed behind elaborate figures built up from moulded and modeled pieces. Many of these built-up figures clearly represent human beings while others represent grotesque divinities or human beings wearing the masks of divinities. The purely human types have a formal modeling in high relief, the head usually being out of proportion to the rest of the body. The pose is ordinarily a seated one with the hands resting on the knees or folded over the breast. Details of dress are very clearly shown including capes, girdles, aprons, or skirts and headdresses. Necklaces are often worn with a crossbar pendant. to which shells are attached. Headdresses are made of feathers and grotesque faces and are often very elaborate. As for the divine types the jaguar and a long-nosed reptile are the most common. ‘The latter has a human body and may possibly be an adaptation of the Mayan Long- nosed God. | The funerary urns are found in burial mounds called mogotes which contain cell-like burial chambers. The urns are not found within these cells but on the floor in front of them, in a niche over the door, or even on the roof. They are frequently encountered in groups of five and seem never to contain offerings. Other Zapotecan pottery is mostly made of the same bluish clay used in the urns. This clay is finely adapted to plastic treatment but never carries painted THE MIDDLE CIVILIZATIONS 145 designs. The pottery products include pitchers of beautiful and unusual shapes, dishes with tripod legs modeled into serpent heads, incense burners, bowls, plates, ete. Of the same clay are also made whistles in realistic forms, and moulded figurines. Painted pot- tery also occurs in forms and designs of rare beauty, but it is much less characteristic of the Zapotecan province than the unpainted ware. Carved jades of splendid workmanship have been recovered in the Zapotecan region and there is reason to believe that this semi-precious stone was obtained here in the natural state. Many of the pieces are smoothed only on the front, while the back retains its old weathered and stream-worn surface. Beautiful examples of gold work have also been found in this region. Splendid manuscripts were obtained by the Spaniards in the Zapotecan region, but the pictures of the gods as well as the hieroglyphs show strong Aztecan influences. These will be discussed briefly in a later section. Some accounts have been preserved of the special features of Zapotecan religion which mark them off rather sharply from the Aztecs, however. The high priests of the Zapotecans were called ‘““Seers’’ and the ordinary priests were ‘‘Guardians of the Gods” and ‘‘Sacrificers.””, There was a sort of priestly college where the sons of chiefs were trained in the service of the gods. The religious practices included incense burning, sacrificing of birds, and ani- mals, and letting of one’s own blood by piercing the tongue and the ear. Human sacrifice was made on stated occasions and was attended by rites of great solemnity. The Zapotecs never went to the blood excesses that stain the annals of the Aztecs. [6] Plate XXVIII. (a) Stone Sculpture of the Early Zapotecan Period showing Rulers seated upon Thrones before an Altar; (b) Jade Tablets pierced for Suspension, found in Zapotecan Tomb. 146 THE MIDDLE CIVILIZATIONS 147 The 260 day cycle of the time count, was subdivided into four periods of 65 days and each period was under control of a single god and was associated with one of the cardinal points. Each period of sixty-five days was further divided into five groups of thirteen days fora ceremonial reason. Some authorities have considered that the general form of the Central American calendar originated in the region of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and spread to the north and to the south. But depend- able history in the Mayan area goes back much farther than in the Zapotecan re- gion and renders such a guess extremely hazardous. Mitla. The famous tem- ples of Mitla are the best- preserved examples of archi- tecture on the highlands of Mexico and are peculiar in form and decoration. The word Mitla is a corruption of the Aztecan word Mictlan, place of the dead. This site was the burial ground of Zapotecan kings and may have been a place of pilgrim- Fig. 52. Detail of Wall Con- struction at Mitla, showing the separately Carved Stones. 148 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA age. It was conquered by the Aztecs in the last decade of the fifteenth century. While the architecture be- longs in a class by itself the frescoes have the distinct character of the Aztecan period. The remains at this site have already been contrasted with those at Monte Alban. There is one fairly large mound at Mitla but it has no surviving superstructure. The temples are placed on low platforms which usually contain cruciform tombs. The buildings are carefully oriented and are assembled in groups of four which almost enclose square paved courts. The heavy walls have surfaces of cut stone and a filling of concrete or rubble and are ornamented with longitudinal panels of ew 2 setae re << ° ay Hon fies ee ule ot uy ee Fig. 53. Wall Paintings of Mitla, resembling ~in style the Picto- graphic Art of the Codices from Southern Mexico. geometric designs arranged according to a carefully worked out plan. The geometric patterns are based on textile art and the mosaics of separately carved stones which fit neatly together preserve for us the ancient designs on belts and mantles. The chambers are long and narrow and formerly had flat roofs which have com- pletely vanished. The wide doorways usually have two piers which help to support the lintel blocks. These are carefully trimmed stones of great length and weight. All the outer surfaces of the Mitla temples were sized with plaster and painted red and the frescoes, traces of which can still be seen in several buildings, are in red and THE MIDDLE CIVILIZATIONS 149 black upon a white base. Various gods and ceremonies are represented in these frescoes, but only the upper portion of the bands can be made out in detail. Cruciform tombs are found under several of the temples at Mitla as well as at a number of neighboring sites such as Xaaga and Guiaroo. In these tombs the designs in panels appear on the inside and are carved directly on large blocks of stone. Pottery remains are rare in the cruciform tombs of the Mitla type but a few examples of gold work have been discovered in them. Within a short distance of Mitla is a fortified hill with several heavy walls that still stand to the height of perhaps twenty feet. In the flat valley between this hill and the ruins a considerable number of potsherds are plowed up in the field. Totonacan Culture. In the central part of the state of Vera Cruz are found the remains commonly referred to the Totonacan Indians. These Indians are southern neighbors of the Huastecas who are an outly- ing Mayan tribe. The Totonacan language is accord- <> ae QS se CH c= 1 2 3 4 5 6 r Fig. 54. The Eyes of Totonacan Figurines. ing to some authorities thrown into the Mayan stock. If not truly Mayan it contains many loan words. This apparent connection in language is all the more inter- esting in view of the character of Totonacan art which also shows a strong strain of Mayan feeling and tech- nique in certain products but an unmistakable likeness to the archaic art of the Mexican highlands in certain other products. The pottery faces in the archaic style are advanced beyond the average of such work and probably represent a late phase. It is possible to bring 150 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA forward examples of every degree of transition from the archaic style to the classical Mayan of Tabasco and Chiapas. Curiously enough, it does not seem possible to extend these linking likenesses to the Huastecas. Plate XXIX. Laughing Head of the Totonacs, remarkable example of Freehand Modeling in Clay. Heads of this type probably served as decorative details on temple fronts. { A series of eyes showing Totonacan modifications of the styles prevalent on the archaic pottery heads of the Highlands is given in Fig. 54. In some cases we find the simple single or double groove eyes and in other cases THE MIDDLE CIVILIZATIONS 151 these eyes are made more conspicuous by the use of black bituminous paint. The eyeball is developed at the end of the series. The smiling or laughing faces have a much higher technique and are perhaps the finest examples of clay modeling from the New World. These heads have tubular extensions at the back and were possibly set into temple walls. The faces and foreheads are broad- ened in accordance with the esthetic type of a forehead flattening people. While the faces vary so much in minor details as to create the impression that they are portraits of actual persons they are alike in method of modeling. Nearly all are laughing or smiling in a very contagious fashion. Semetimes the tip of the tongue is caught between the teeth,-sometimes the corners of the mouth are pulled down as if the smile were reluctant, and there are other individual variations in the expres- sions of lively and unrestrained mirth. Perhaps the most famous objects found in Totonacan territory are the so-called “‘stone collars” or ‘‘sacri- ficial yokes.’’ In size and shape these resemble horse collars, but in contrast to somewhat similar objects from Porto Rico they are usually open while the latter are closed. Nothing is really known concerning their use but there has been no lack of fanciful surmises. The most popular explanation is that the yokes were placed over the necks of victims about to be sacrificed. It is evident that the yokes were intended to be placed in a horizontal position because there is a plain lower surface and the ends are frequently carved with faces that are right side up only when the plain side is down. These yokes represent the richest and most elaborate works of art in the entire region since they are carved in the most finished manner from single blocks of exceedingly hard stone. 6ST > ‘SYJNOW Loy} Ul SoyvUS SUIP[OY o1v Soinsy onbse}OLs OMT, “ZI BOA JO 04¥IQ OY} UOLJ OUOJG oywU[eG VW (gq) ‘{suvIpuy uvovuUOyoT, oy} jo oinjdnog seq oy} fo opdurexg uv ‘rey[oD ou0yg poareyg Ajo}esogeyyY Uy (P) “XXX 7° THE MIDDLE CIVILIZATIONS 153 Other peculiarly shaped stones are found in the Totonacan area and are carved according to the same splendid technique. The “‘ paddle-shaped”’ stones have been found in considerable numbers and their use, like that of the stone yokes is absolutely unknown. It is evident from the carving that they were intended to be stood on end. The designs on the sacrificial yokes and paddle stones are largely reptilian, but there are examples where the turkey, the coyote, as well as the human motive are treated somewhat after the manner of the Mayas. In fact there can be little doubt that the best period of Totonacan art corresponded pretty closely to the best period of Mayan art. The most important site is Papantla where a remarkably ornate pyramid rising in six terraces may be seen, as well as massive sculptures in the same style as the works of art described above. The front wall of each terrace on all four sides of the pyra- mid, except for the space occupied by the stairway is divided into a series of niches neatly made of cut stone. Formerly each of these niches may have served to shelter the statue of some god. Many fine remains of Totonacan art have been recovered from the Island of Sacrifices in the harbor of Vera Cruz. This island retained its ancient sacrificial character in the time of the Spanish conquerors. It is apparent, however, that the culture had already changed greatly if we may judge by the ruins of Cempoalan, the Totonacan capital in the sixteenth century. The art of this city is largely Aztecan. The Toltecs. The first peoples to appear in Mexi- can history are the Olmecs and Toltecs. Tales of ancient splendor cluster about them, but there is a woe- ful lack of definite information concerning their origin 154 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA and the extent of their dominion. Some authorities see in the Olmecs a Mayan tribe that once inhabited the region east and southeast of the Valley of Mexico and who were afterwards driven out. But it seems more likely that both the Olmecs and the Toltecs were tribes of Nahuan rather than Mayan stock and that they were merely the first of the Highlanders to feel the quickening effect of Mayan contact. Both terms were probably generalized by the later nations far beyond their original significance. The Toltecs derived their name from Tula or Tollan, which was only one of several cities that flourished during the Toltecan period. Whether all these cities were ever bonded into a political whole is a question that cannot now be answered. : Owing to the lack of a “‘long count” the dates in Toltecan history are few and uncertain. The Mexican document with the longest range of history is the Annals of Quauhtitlan in which the count of years goes back in a practically unbroken series to 635 A.D. Still earlier dates are indicated. For instance, the legendary departure from Chicomoztoc, the Seven Caves, is placed for the Chichimecas as 364 years (7 x 52) before their settlement in 687 at Quauhtitlan. An annotation on the manuscript reading: ‘‘6 times 4 centuries, plus 1 century plus 13 years, today the 22nd of May, 1558” has been taken to summarize the scope of the original. The ‘‘centuries’”’ are of course the native ‘‘cycles”’ of 52 years and the total on this basis amounts to 1313 years which subtracted from 1558 would carry us back to 245 A.D. While this chronicle concerns itself mostly with the lowly Chichimecas who did not become important until after the downfall of Toltecan power, still what pur- ports to be a genealogy of the rulers of Tula is also given. From other sources, such as the writings of Fernando de THE MIDDLE CIVILIZATIONS 155 ~ Alva Ixtlilxochitl, we are able to gain a little additional light on some of the Toltecan chiefs. The person of Quetzalcoatl in this history is endowed with super- natural qualities and it is not unlikely that he was a great religious teacher. Of course, the name is also applied to one of the important deities and this fact has doubtless led to much of the confusion that exists. Under Huemac, the last of the Toltecan chiefs, witch- eraft and human sacrifice appear to have laid the ground for oppression and war. SUMMARY OF TOLTECAN HISTORY 726 Toltecs establish their government in Cuxhuacan. 752 Mixcoamacatzin is elected chief. 817 Mixcoamacatzin dies and is succeeded by Huetzin. 835 Huetzin dies and is succeedéd by Thuitimal. 843 The miraculous birth of Quetzalcoatl takes place. 870 Quetzalcoatl arrives at Tullanzinco and performs rites. 873 Lhuitimal dies and Quetzalcoatl is made ruler. 883 Quetzalcoatl, the lesser, dies. Temple building. 895 Quetzalcoatl dies and is succeeded by Matlaxochitl who moves the government to Tula. 930 Matlaxochitl dies and is followed by Nauhyotzin. 945 Nauhyotzin is succeeded by Matlacoatzin. 973 Matlacoatzin is succeeded by Tlilcoahuatzin. 994 Tlilecoahuatziz dies and the famous Huemac takes the power. The wicked magic of his queen. 1018 The great starvation takes place. 1058 Many strange things happen in Tula. The demons arrive. 1059 Two armies attack the population. Despotism begins. First sacrifice of nobles. 1063 War wages. The Otomis attack—the skins of slain warriors are first worn. 1064 Tula under Huemac is destroyed because of the wicked magic. The people disperse. 1070 The power of Tula broken completely, Huemac commits suicide in Chapultepec. Some authorities shift the entire series of dates in this summary backward one 52 year period, making the 156 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA first date 674 A.D. and the last one 1018 A.D. This ~ seems unjustifiable in view of the continuous counting of every year in this chronicle down to the coming of the Spaniards in 1519. Of course this summary does not actually cover the range of Toltecan history. Such cities as Teotihuacan and Xochicaleo may well have seen their prime before Tula became important while certain other popula- tions such as Colhuacan, Atzcapotzaleo and Cholula doubtless carried the civilization of the Toltecs down into times much later than the suicide of Huemac. Indeed, there is reason to believe that Teotihuacan was the original Tollan, and that Tula was the last capital of the defeated nation. Checking up Mexican dates with the more accurate chronology of the Mayas it may be pointed out that the period of Mexican influence in Northern Yucatan seems to have begun about 1200 A.D. This date is 130 years after the recorded downfall of Tula, yet certain structural and decorative details of the buildings erected at Chichen Itza by these foreign overlords find their closest ana- logues at Tula. Other details point to the somewhat later epoch of Tezcoco. Curiously enough, no record of the far-reaching conquest of Yucatan seems to have been preserved on the highlands of Mexico. Archeology tells a more convincing tale as regards the Toltecs than does history herself. In the stratified remains at Atzcapotzaleo the objects made by the Toltecs overlie those of the first potters of the Archaic Period and are in striking contrast to them. The prin- cipal motives seen in Toltecan decorative art owe an obvious debt to the earlier and more brilliant work of the Mayas. The pyramids of the Toltecs exceed in size those of the Mayas, but are of inferior construction, adobe bricks LST ‘QAOGB UIOS OIV JfoS} ojdur19} oy} Jo sy[VM oy, “pruresdd aydureyz oy) jo aseq poanjdjnos oy} sMoys vinjord oy} Jo yued LOMO] OYJ, “UOTJBIO}SEY IOJoq OoPBoTyOOY ye o[duIay oyT, “"TXNXNX 2% 158 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA with concrete facings taking the place of rubble and cut stone. The temples that crowned these pyramids were also of less solid character and no single example is now intact. Vaulted ceilings do not appear to have been used, but instead flat, timbered ceilings or high ptched roofs of thatch. Sometimes two or more columns were placed within the room to support the roof beams. ‘The groundplans of buildings other than — temples, show small rooms arranged in an 1 fashion around courts. A ceremonial game that resembled basket ball was an important feature of Toltecan religion. ‘Two rings were set vertically in the walls that flanked a level space and the object of the game was to make the rub- ber ball pass through one of the rings. ‘This sacred game spread far and wide. It was introduced into northern Yucatan and the most elaborate ball court of all was built at Chichen Itza. Another special feature of Toltecan religion was the worship of the sun disk which was passed on to the later civilizations of Mexico, and which likewise was carried to Yucatan. Prayers are commonly represented in Toltecan sculptures by the device of the ‘‘speech scroll’? which issues from the mouth o he speaker and pictures forth what his desires are. Xochicalco. Let us now pass over in brief review several ruins which belong to the Toltecan period. Xochicaleo, the House of the Flowers, is a large ruin near Cuernavaca. The position seems to have been chosen primarily for defense. The rounded ridge that drops off into deep valleys on either side is laid out in courts, terraces, and pyramids. Only one building offers evidence of the sculptural skill of the ancient habitants. It is a temple, standing upon a rather low THE MIDDLE CIVILIZATIONS 159 platform mound. The sides of the platform mound are decorated with great plumed serpents, seated human figures, hieroglyphs, ete. Parts of the sculptures also remain on the low walls of the temples itself which is now roofless. The stone carving at Xochicalco re- sembles that of Monte Alban especially as regards the hieroglyphs. San Juan Teotihuacan. The great ruin of Teotihuacan is located on the eastern margin of the Valley of Mexico. The principal features of Teotihua- can are two great pyramids and a straight roadway lined with small pyramids. There are also several groups of buildings of which the lower walls and the bases of the piers are still to be seen as well as some interesting fragments of fresco painting. The smaller of the two great pyramids is called the Pyramid of the Moon. It is located at the end of the roadway which is com- monly called the Pathway of the Dead. The Pyramid of the Sun is situated on the east side of the roadway. This pyramid is about 180 feet in height and rises in four sloping terraces. The temple which formerly crowned its summit has entirely disappeared. Explo- rations conducted by the Mexican government showed that this pyramid was enlarged from time to time and old stairways buried under new masonry. On the south side of the small stream that flows through the ruins is a group of buildings called the Citadel. In 1921 the Mexican Government provided funds for a restoration of the Citadel under the direction of Doctor Manuel Gamio, following the discovery by him of remarkable sculptures on the principal pyramid. It appears that in ancient times this pyramid was enlarged by an addition to one side and the richly ornamented terraces and stairway buried (Plate XXXII). The [] Plate XXXII. Two views of the Principal Pyramid in the Citadel at Teotihuacan. (a) General View of the original mass of the pyramid at the back with the reconstructed addition in front. (6) View of stairway and various walls covered up and preserved by the addition. 160 THE MIDDLE CIVILIZATIONS 161 sculptured: stones from the other three sides of the temple were allowed to fall into neglect by the Toltecs or were carried away and put to other uses, but the portion buried was kept in its original state. The colors are still bright in many places and the great heads of plumed serpents and obsidian butterflies sometimes re- tain their inset eyes of obsidian. The decoration is a repeated motive. The head of the feathered serpent projects outward from the terrace walls and from the balustrade of the stairway, while the body is in low re- lief. The tail of the serpent has a rattle, and the body is covered with feathers. Shells are seen below the serpent where the body arches and just in front of the tail is a massive head with two rings on the frontal which doubt- less represents the Obsidian Butterfly, a divinity of great importance among the Toltecs, which isrepresented un- mistakably in frescoes at Teotihuacan as well as on pottery. The Citadel well deserves its name, since it is a great enclosure, much like a fort, with buildings upon its bulwarks, and with steep outer walls, which could easily be defended. A few large sculptures have been found at Teoti- huacan. But the site is chiefly remarkable for pottery figurines and heads that are picked up by thousands. The heads present such a marked variety of facial contour and expression that it would seem as if every race under the sun had served as models. It is very likely that these heads formed part of votive offerings, beings attached to bodies made of some. perishable material. The heads were seldom used to adorn pottery vessels, although many modern and fraudulent vases are so adorned. Dolls with head and torso in one piece and with movable arms and legs made of separate pieces were known. The face of Tlaloc, the Rain God, is fairly common in Teotihuacan pottery but other deities 162 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA have not surely been identified. It is not improbable that the God of Fire is personified as an old man with wrinkled face, but somewhat less likely that Xipe is represented in the faces that look out through the three holes of a mask. The jaguar, the monkey, the owl, and other animals are also modeled with excellent fidel- - ity. The Mayan convention of the human face in the open jaws of the serpent is not unknown. A number of beautiful vases painted in soft greens, pinks, and yellows have been recovered at Teotihuacan. These colors would not stand the kiln and they were applied after the vessel had been burned. According to one method, the outside of the vessel was covered with a fine coating of plaster upon which the design was painted exactly as in fresco. Ac- cording to a second method the effect of cloisonné was cleverly achieved. This technique is most characteristic of the region northwest of the Valley of Mexico and will be described later. Incised or en- graved designs are commonly met with on pottery vessels at Teotihuacan. Tula. The ancient city of Tula or Tollan, the Place of the Reeds, is situated about fifty miles north of Mexico City. Building stone of good quality was avail- able at this site and in consequence sculptures are more plentiful than at Teotihuacan. Particularly famous are the great sculptured columns which represent feathered serpents and gigantic human figures. The drums are Fig. 55. Jointed Doll of Clay from San Juan Teotihuacan. THE MIDDLE CIVILIZATIONS 163 mostly mortised and the columns are crowned by true capitals. These architectural features at Tula find their closest counterpart at the Mayan city of Chichen Itza in northern Yucatan. The élachili or ball court occurs at Tula and the groundplans of complicated “‘palaces”’ ean also be made out. Cholula. The sacred city of Cholula, in the en- virons at Puebla, is chiefly famous for its great pyramid. This structure is more or less irregular in shape but the Fig. 56. Pottery Plates from Cholula with Decorations in Several Colors. The pottery of Cholula ranks high in design and color. base averages more than a thousand feet on the side and the total height, now somewhat reduced, was probably close to two hundred feet above the plain. Compared with the Pyramid of Cheops, it covers nearly twice as much ground and has a much greater volume, but lacks of course, in height. As already noted, the pyramids of the New World are simply foundations for temples and thus always have flat tops. The great mound of Cholu- la is a solid mass of adobe bricks of uniform size laid in adobe mortar. The pyramid was evidently faced with a thick layer of cement of which a few patches still [6 , Plate XX XIII. (a) Partial View of the Great Pyramid at Cholula which rises from the Level Plain in Three Broad Terraces. A Spanish church has been built upon the top of this pyramid and a roadway leads up the badly eroded mound. (b) A View at La Quemada. Cylindrical columns built up of slabs of stone supported the roofs of some of the structures. The use of columns was characteristic of late Toltecan times. 164 THE MIDDLE CIVILIZATIONS 165 remain. Two other large mounds exist at Cholula. One of these has been partially destroyed and now stands as a vertical mass of adobe bricks while the other is over- grown with brush and cactus. Unlike the other Toltecan cities Cholula was still in- habited and a place of religious importance when Cortez arrived in Mexico. But the figurines and pottery ves- sels that are found at this site belong for the most part to an epoch earlier than that of the Aztecs. Quetzal- coatl was the patron deity of Cholula and in the decor- ative art the serpent is finely conventionalized. i HL Lel dbl et A arhonins' aye weak aN aa Paar hai Drawer : } ) s ‘ Bhd, Fi ‘ _f i Lal be? (AY iss ait three ae Ra ey CARL nil eleqway, SMES ie thy we oo A hl a wees i.e ids wan ltl ie pact h ef py i pe AG a} "hd RG i Aha ae gto’ thy - bevy thi ‘ out hid 4 pS , y b: ' - . it ee . 1 AMY Nee te RUSRE e . . - : ‘ , J ‘i : ; do i ; ~ Wi ; ‘ ue ) + \ : J 2 fake - ‘ he. Hh a > } eee ryt ih ENT Se Oar) ere a wn Ae aIVe ESE Dune [nied bad elt Ae 4, an 4 i te? wit aka wet : d ~ / j dhe ‘ b ll yf he f vy ies GE f) 7 4 ji, dt : BIBLIOGRAPHY A brief list of books on Mexico and Central America is appended. These books may be consulted in the Museum Library as well as others referred to in the more complete bibliographies that will be found in the works cited. Bancrort, H. H. The Native Races of the Pacific States. 5 vols. New York and London, 1875-1876. BANDELIER, ApoLPH F. On the Distribution and Tenure of Lands and the Customs with Respect to Inheritance, among the Ancient Mexicans (Eleventh Annual Report, Peabody Museum of American Archzol- ogy and Ethnology, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 384-448, Cambridge, 1878.) Social Organization and Mode of Government of the Ancient Mexicans (Twelfth Annual Report, Peabody Museum of American Archzology and Ethnology, vol. 2, no. 3, Cambridge, 1879.) Bownitcn, C. P. The Numeration, Calendar Systems and Astronomical Knowledge of the Mayas. Cambridge, 1910. BransFrorp, J. F. Archzxological Researches in Nicaragua (Smith- sonian Contributions to Knowledge, XXV, Art. 2, pp. 1-96, 1881.) Brinton, D.G. The Maya Chronicles. Philadelphia, 1882. (No. 1 of . Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal American Literature.) The Annals of the Cakchiquels. The original text with a translation, notes and introduction. Philadelphia, 1885. (No. 6 of Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal American Literature.) ; Essays of an Americanist. Philadelphia, 1890. BULLETIN 28. Mexican and Central American Antiquities, Calendar Systems and History. Twenty-four papers by Eduard Seler, E. Fors- temann, Paul Schellhas, Carl Sapper and E. P. Dieseldorff. Trans- lated from the German under the supervision of Charles P. Bowditch (Bulletin 28, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1904.) Cuarnay, D. The Ancient Cities of the New World. Trans. by J. Gonino and H. 8. Conant. London, 1887. Dras Det Castitito, Bernat. The True History of the Conquest of Merico, 1568. 3 vols. (Translated by A. P. Maudslay. Hakluyt Society, London, 1908.) FORsTEMANN, E. Commentary of the Maya Manuscript in the Royal Public Library of Dresden (Papers, Peabody Museum, IV, No. 2, pp. 48-266, 1906.) 229 230 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA Gann, T. Wounds in Northern Honduras (Nineteenth Annual Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, part 2, pp. 661-692, Washington, 1897-1898.) Hartmann, C. V. Archeological Researches in Costa Rica (The Royal Ethnographical Museum in Stockholm, Stockholm, 1901.) Archzxological Researches on the Pacific Coast of Costa Rica (Memoirs, Carnegie Institute, vol. 3, pp. 1-95, 1907.) Homes, W. H. Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui (Sixth Annual Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, pp. 3-187, Washington, 1888.) 7 Archxological Studies among the Ancient Cities in Mexico (Publications, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, 1895- 1897.) —~ Joycp, T. A. Mexican Archeology. An Introduction to the Arche- ology of the Mexican and Maya Civilizations of pre-Spanish America. New York and London, 1914. Central American and West Indies Archxology. Being an Introduction to the Archeology of the States of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama and the West Indies. New York, 1916. _. - KINGSBOROUGH, Lorp. Antiquities of Mexico. 9 vols., folio. London, 1831-1848. : LEHMANN, W. Methods and Results in Mexican Research. ‘Trans. by Seymour de Ricci. Paris, 1909. Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise in Mittelamerika und Mexico 1907-1909 (Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, Band 42, pp. 687-749, 1910.) Zentral Amerika. Die Sprachen Zentral-Amerikas in ihren Beziehungen zueinander sowie zu Stid-Amerika und Mexiko. In zwei Banden. Band 1. Berlin, 1920. LumuHo.itz, C. Unknown Mexico. 2 vols. New York, 1902. Symbolism of the Huichol Indians (Memoirs, American Museum of Natural History, vol. 3, part 1, 1900.) Decorative Art of the Huichol Indians (Memoirs, American Museum of Natural History, vol. 3, part 4, 1904.) MacCurpy, G. G. A. Study of Chiriquian Antiquities (Memoirs, Con- necticut Academy of Sciences, vol. 3, 1911.) Mavupstay, A. P. Biologia Centrali-Americana, or Contributions to the Knowledge of the Flora and Fauna of Mexico and Central America. Archeology, 4 vols. of text and plates. London, 1889-1902. BIBLIOGRAPHY 231 Memorrs OF THE PEABODY Museum, vols. 1-5. Reports on excava- tions and exploration by Gordon, Maler, Thompson, and Tozzer. Mortey, 8. G. An Introduction lo the Study of the Maya Hieroglyphs ‘Bulletin 57, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1915.) The Inscriptions at Copan. (Publication 219, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, 1920.) PENAFIEL, A. Monumentos del arte Mexicano antiguo. 3 vols. Berlin, 1890. Nomenclatura geografica de Mexico. Mexico, 1897. SAHAGUN, BERNARDINO DE. Histoire générale des Choses de la Nouvelle- Espagne (Edited and translated by D. Jourdanet and Rémi Siméon), 1880. ; Historia de las cosas de Nueva Espana (Port- folio of illustrations from two Sahagun manuscripts copied under direction of F. del Paso y Troncoso and issued by the Mexican Gov- ernment. Florence, 1922.) ScHELtas, P. Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts. 2nd edition revised. (Translated by Miss Selma Wesselhoeft and Miss A. M. Parker, Papers, Peabody Museum, vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 7-47, 1904.) Sever, E. Die alten Ansiedelungen von Chacula im Districkte Nenton des Departments Huehuetenango der Republic Guatemala. Berlin, 1901. Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach- und Alterthumskunde. 5 vols. Berlin, 1902-1908. Codex Vaticanus No. 3773 (Codex Vaticanus B). An Old Mexican Pictorial Manuscript in the Vatican Library (Trans- lated by A. H. Keane). Berlin and London, 1902-1903. SPINDEN, H. J. A Study of Maya Art (Memoirs, Peabody Museum, vol. 6, 1913.) Squier, E.G. The Slates of Central America: their Geography Topo- graphy, Climate, Population, etc. New York, 1858. STEPHENS, J. L. Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan. 2 vols. New York, 1841. Incidents of Travel in Yucatan. 2 vols. New York, 1843. Tuomas, C. A Study of the Manuscript Troano (U.S. Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, Contributions to American Ethnology, V, pp. 1-224, 1882.) Tuomas, C. ANp Swanton, Joun R. Indian Languages of Mexico and Central America (Bulletin 44, Bureau of American Ethnology, Wash- ington, 1911.) Pha hr Cie nr es eg : , ns Fie) ak. he © Bivens oof inh , he i kg Sy fe ts ca A, 232 MEXICO AND CENTRAL ERICA | Toran A.M. A Comparative —— of the Mc ayas and La 17 York, 1907. A Maya Grammar, with Bipasha and ist the Works Noted (Papers, Peabody Museum of American A and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. 9, Cambridge, ’ | ° INDEX Acropolis, artificial, 68, 70. Adobe, 57; houses, Mexican, 15. Agriculture, connection with archaic art, 226; distribution of, 59, 60; distribution in the New World, 62; influence on Mayan culture, 67; invention of, 47-49; spread and development of, 59, 62. Ahpuch, Lord of Death, 94, 96. Alligator ware, 64. Alphabet, of Landa, 113. Altars, Mayan, 78; Quirigua, 127. Amulets, archaic figurines as, 54; gold, 179. Animals, domestication of, 54, 228. Annals of Quauhtitlan, 154, 183, 185. Arch, in Mayan architecture, 71, 74. Archaic, art, 51—53, 54, 220-221; art, on borders of Mayan area, 69; art, local developments of, 60— 64; culture, 169; culture, distri- bution of, 59,61; culture, figures, 56-57; figurines, 51-53; frontier cities of the Northwest, 164; horizon, 43-65; horizon, exten- sions of, 59-60; pottery, 55; site, 46; stone sculptures, 55-57. Architecture, brilliant period of the Mayas, 134; historical sequence determined by, 127-128; Mayan, 69-77; Mitla, 147-148; period of the League of Mayapan, 135; Transition Period, Mayan, 134; types, La Quemada, 165-166. Aristocracies, among the Aztecs, 189- 191. Art, archaic, 43, 52-53, 69, 220-221; archaic, characterization of, 51; archaic, local developments of, 60-64; Chorotegan, 171-176; decorative Isthmian region, 63, 64; high development of Mayan, 67; historical development. of, 125-128; massive sculptural, 77-78; Mayan, 132, 133, 134, 135, 1386; Mayan, serpent in, 82— 86; Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa, 169; sequence in, 124~-128; Tarascan, 43, 220-221; Toltecan, influenced by Mayan, 156; ~ Totonacan, close correspondence to Mayan, 149, 150, 153; Zapo- tecan, influenced by Mayan, 141. Arts, minor, Aztecan, 218-220; Mayan, 78-82. Astronomy, Mayan knowledge of, 67, 97, 121, 125. Atlatl, 53, 220. Atzcapotzalco, 181, 184, 188; strati- fication at, 44-45, 156. Aztecan history, 184-188. Aztecs, 181-226; and Mayas, com- pared to Greeks and Romans, 181-183. Bar and dot numerals, 104, 106, 116 142. Basketry, Mayan, 82. Bats, represented in ancient art, 20. Bells, Aztecan, 218; copper, 169; copper and gold, 179. Ben, Mayan day sign, 80. Blankets, Mexican, 37. Brilliant Period, Mayan civilization, 69, 133-134. Buildings, Mayan, 71. Caban, Mayan day sign, 80. Cakchiquels, 137, 190. 233 234 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA Calendar, annual, Mayan, 110; Central American, 147; cere- monial, Aztecan, 207; lunar, Mayan, 110-112; lunar-solar, Mayan, 97; Mayan, scheme as presented in Codex Tro-Cortes- ianus, 102; religious, Aztecan, 212-213; Venus, Mayan, 112- 113. Calendar round, Mayan, 101-103. Calendar Stone, 193-195, 197, 210. Calpolli, Aztecan, 190, 191. Cannibalism, 41. Captives, as represented in Mayan art, 86. Caribs, characterization of culture, 41 Caricature, in archaic figurines, 50. 53. Carving, development in style at Copan, 124; on Mayan monu- ments, 127; stone, at Xochical- co, 159. Celts, copper, Tarascan, 220; stone, 57. Cempoalan, 24, 153, 176. Cenote, 18; sacred, at Chichen Itza, 28. Cephalic index, Mexico and Central America, 42. Ceremonial Bar, Mayan, 86, 91, 93, 127. Ceremonies, Aztecan, 211-216; Mexi- can, 36. Chacmool, 175-176, 221, 224. Chalchuihtlicue, Aztecan Goddess of Water, 209. Chiapanecan languages, 34. Chichen Itza, 27, 131, 134, 135, 136, 156,158, 163, 176, 221. Chichimecas, 154, 183-184 Chicomoztoc, 154, 165, 184. Chiefs, Aztecan, 189; 191; Toltecan, 155; war, Aztecan, 187-188. Chilam Balam, Books of, 125, 130-131 Chimayo blankets, 39. Cholula, 24, 163-165, 184. Chorotegan culture, 171-176. Chronology, Aztecan, 185; bases of Mayan, 123-125; Mayan, 123, 125, 126; Mayan, correlation with Christian, 69, 131-132; Mayan, correlation with Mexican dates, 154; Mayan, established by dated monuments and style of sculpture, 129-130. | Civilization, Mayan, 67-137, 226. Civilizations, middle, in Mexico and Central America, 139-180. Clans, kinship, 190. Climate, Mexico’ and America, 13-14. Cloisonné pottery, 162, 166-167; San Juan Teotihuacan, 162. Coatlicue, 193, 199-201. Codex, Aubin, 187; Borbonicus, 206; Magliabecchiano, 208, 213; Nut- tall, 223, 224; Telleriano-Remen- sis, 182. Codices, Mayan, 116-1238, 224; Mayan gods in, 92, 94; Mexican, 201; southern Mexico, 222-224. Colhuacan, stratification at, 44-45. Collectors, specimens in Mexican Hall, 6. Colonization, Central America, by Spaniards, 22. Columns, sculptured at Tula, 162. Comalealeo, 139. Commerce, Aztecan objects of, 204. Composition in design, Mayan, 87-89. Conquest, history of Spanish, 21-31; of Mexico, 22-29; symbol for, 202, 224. Central INDEX 235 Construction of walls, La Quemada, 165-166; Mayan, 71, 74, 76-77; Mitla, 147-148. Copan, 19, 68, 69, 70, 77, 124, 132, 133, 171. Cora, 36. Correlations, dates with style of carving in Mayan monuments, 128-130. Crocodile motive, in Chorotegan art, 172, 176; Isthmian region, 177. Crops, indigenous and introduced, Mexico and Central America, 21; principal, Mayan region, 67, 69. Cross-section, typical, Mayan temple, 74, 75. Cult, of the quarters, Aztecan, 211. ~- Cults, Aztecan gods, 224. Culture, Carib, 39, 41; Chorotegan, 171-176; Huichol, 36; Lacan- done Indians, 39; Mayan, 65-— 137; Mosquito Indians, 41; southern Mexico, 221-224; strata, Atzeapotzalco,45; Sumo Indians, 41; Taraseans, 220-221; Tol- tees, 153-159, 183; Totonacan, 149-153; Zapotecan, 141-147. Cyele, defined, 98. Dances, hunting, Huichol. Dated monuments, 128-130. Dates, early Mayan, 131, 139; Mayan, 103, 109, 128, 130, 131; Toltecan, 154. Day count, Mayan, elements of the, 97-100. Day signs, Aztecan, 197, 203, 204, 205; hieroglyphs used on Mayan pottery, 80;/ Mayan, 98. Death God, 94, 96, 102. Decoration, Mayan buildings, 77: Mayan pottery, 79-S1; pottery, archaic period, 55. Decorative motives, Chorotegan art, 171-172; distribution of, 224. Design, composition and perspective, Mayan, 87-91; on Mexican blanket, 220; motives, Costa Rica, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177. Designs, on blankets, 37; developed in negative painting, 166-168; geometric, at Mitla, 148; Mayan pottery, 79, 80, 81; polychrome pottery, 80; realistic, Mayan pottery, 79, 80; textile, Mayan, 82; Totonacan sacrificial yokes and paddle stones, 153; woven, Huichol, 35, 36. Donors, collections in Mexican Hall, 5-6. Dresden Codex, 110, 112, 116-122. Dress, shown in archaic figurines, 53; Mexico and Central America, 37— 39; modern Mexican, 37. Drums, Aztecan, 215. Dyes, 228. Early Period, in Mayan history, 132- 133. Earrings, archaic figurines, 53. Economic contributions, of American Indians, 228. Ehecatl, God of Winds, 54, 203, 208. Ek Ahau, war god, Mayan, 96. Elevations, Mayan buildings, 76-77. Environment, Mayan, 139; Mexico and Central America, 13-21. Ethnology, 35-42, 53-55. European contact, history of, 21-31. Exploration, of Central America, by Spaniards, 21-22; Mexico, 22- 24. Eves, color and Mongoloid tilt, 42: types of, on archaic figurines, 52, 53; on Totonacan figurines, 149, 150. 236 Face numerals, Mayan inscriptions, 106. Fauna, Mexico and Central America, 19-20. Feast, in connection with planet Venus, 216; of the twelfth month, 214-215, Feasts, Aztecan, 212-216; Sumo, 41. Feather mosaics, Aztecan, 220; Tarascan, 221. Fibers, 228. Figurines, archaic, 51-53; archaic, Isthmian region, 59, 60; archaic, from Salvador, 52; clay, transi- tion period, 69; female, distribu- tion of, 54, 57, 63-64; pottery, Aztecan, 219; pottery, San Juan Teotihuacan, 161-162. Filigree, modern Mexican work, 219. Flageolets, Aztecan, 217. Flora, Mexico and Central America, 20-21. Flores, 28. Flying facade, on Mayan buildings, ree: Food plants, most widely distributed in the New World, 48; cultivated by American Indians, 228. Frescoes, Mitla, 148-149. Frontier cities, of the northwest, 165-— . 169. Funerary urns, Zapotecan, 144; also frontispiece. Games, ceremonial, Toltecan, 158. Genealogical table, Mexican, 208. Genealogies, Aztecan, 189-190. Geography, Mexico and _ Central America, 13-21. Geology, Mexico and Central Amer- ica, 19. Gladiator stones, 198. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA Glaze, on modern Mexican pottery, 37. Glyphs, introducing, Mayan, 106, 107; tary series, 111. God houses, Huichol, 36. God of War, Mayan, 96. God’s eyes, Huichol, 36. Gods, Aztecan, 201, 203, 205, 209; beast, Mayan representation of, 92; in Dresden Codex, 94; Mayan, 80, 83, 85, 91, 92-96, 123; Mexican, 54, 205, 207, 208, 209; represented in pottery from San Juan Teotihuacan, 161-162. Gold work, ancient, Isthmian region, 64; Aztecan, 219; in cruciform tombs, 149; Isthmian, 177-179; Mayan, 82; Zapotecan, 145. Gourd vessels, Tarascan, 221. Government, Aztecan, 188, theocratic, of the Mayas, 86. Graves, Isthmian, gold objects found Iny 178179: Great Ball Court, Chichen Itza, 136, 158. Great Mound, Copan, 133. Great Period, Mayan history, 133- 134. Grooving, in archaic figurines, 52. Groundplans, Toltecan buildings, 158; -Yaxchilan temples, 70. Guatuso, 42. Gums, 228. 107; period, supplemen- 191; Haab, defined, 108. . Hair, Indians of Mexico and Central America, 42. Headdresses, shown in _— archaic figurines, 51, 53. Hieroglyphs, Aztecan, of precious stones, 201; containing phonetic INDEX 237 element kin, 115; decorative use on pottery, Mayan, 79; of the Four Directions, 114, 115; Mayan, 88, 113-116; Nahuan, 202; on stele at Monte Alban, 142; on the Stone of Tizoc, 199; at Xochicalco, 159. Hikule worship, Huichol and Tara- humare, 36. History, Aztecan, 184-188; Chichi- mecan, 183-184; of European contact, Mexico and Central America, 21-31; Mayan, sum- mary of, 132-137; summary in relation to archeological evi- dences, on the archaic horizon, 64-65; Toltecan, 154-156; tra~ ditional, southern Mexico, 222- 223. Hochob, 72. Horse, introduction of, 60. Hotun periods, 129. Houses, adobe, Mexican, 15; archaic period, 57; Mayan, 70-71. Huastecas, 34, 149, 150. Huichol, 35, 36. Huipili, decorated, 38, 39. Huitzilopochtli, 193, 198, 209, 214. Human, form, carved in stone, archaic period, 55-57; form, in Mayan art, 83, 86-87, 125-127; heads, types of, at Yaxchilan, 88. Hunting implements, Lacandone, 39. Ihuicatl, inferior heavens, 210. Imix, day sign, Mayan, 80; first day of the formal permutation, 100, 101. Incised designs on pottery, S80. Influence, Aztecan, in Central America, 224-226; Mayas, on other civilizations, 137; Mexican, in northern Yucatan, 156. Initial Series date, Chichen Itza, 131; Great Period, 134; importance in determination of correlations, 134; Transition Period, 134. Initial Series dates, 107, 109, 112, 134. Inscriptions, hieroglyphic, 96; hiero- glyphic, on Mayan monuments, 113, 128; Mayan, 114; Mayan, face numerals on, 106; Mayan, Great Period, 134; on Mayan monuments, 128-130; typical, Mayan, 109. Invention of agriculture, in the New World, 47-49. Irrigation, in the New World, 49, 59. Itzamna, 93, 96, 102. Ixchel, Goddess of the Rainbow, 96. Ixchebelyax, Mayan god, 96. Ixtubtun, Mayan god, 96. Jade, carving of Mayan, 82; Zapo- tecan, 145, 146; work in, Aztec, 219-220. Jaguar design, in Chorotegan art, 173, 175. Kan, day sign, Mayan, 80; maize sign, 123. Katun, defined, 130. Kukulean, 93. Lacandone Indians, 39, 137. Lakes, Mexico and Central America, 17, 18-19. Land laws, Aztecan, 190. Language, Totonacan, 149. Languages, Central America, 216; Mexico and Central America, 31-34. La Quemada, 164, 165-166. 238 League, Aztecan, 188; of Mayapan, 135: Leiden Plate, 132. Lienzo of Amoltepec, 223. Linguistic stocks, Mexico Central America, 31-34. Long count, Mayan, 107. Long-nosed God, Mayan, 91, 93, 94, 144, 209. Lunar, calendar, Mayan, 97, 110— 112; period, in Mayan calendar, 130; 411; and Macuilxochitl, God Five Flower, 225. Manikin Scepter, 86, 92, 93. Maize God, Mayan, 93, 96 123. Maize, distribution of use, 48; most important food of the New World, 48-49; staple, in Mayan region, 67, 69. Manioc, cultivation of, 49; use and preparation by Carib, 41. Marimba, origin of, 218. Mask panels, on Mayan structures, 7é, 135. Mayan, civilization, 65-137; lin- guistie stock, distribution of, 34. Mayas, and Aztecs, compared to Greeks and Romans, 181-183. Mazatecas, 191. Medicines, 228. Metal, ornaments made of, Mayas, 82; Zapotecan, 145. Metates, elaborately sculptured, 172- 173. Mexican Hall, American Museum, 5-6. Mexican influence, period of, in Mayan history, 135-136. Mictlan, 147, 211. Mictlanteuctli, Lord of Death, 211. Middle Period, in Mayan history, 133. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA Migrations, Aztecan, 185. Mitla, 19, 141, 147-149. Mixtecas, 191. Modeling, archaic figurines, 51-52; clay, San Juan Teotihuacan, 161. Modern Period, Mayan history, 136- 137. Mogotes, Zapotecan burial mounds, 144. Monkey, in Chorotegan art, 171. Monte Alban, 141, 142, 148, 222. Month, Mayan, twenty day signs of, 98; signs, of Mayan Year, 100. Months, Aztecan,205; Mayan, length of, 100; Mayan, names of, 100. Monument, earliest dated, 132. Monuments, Mayan, dated, 128-130; sequence of Mayan determined by style of sculpture, 125-127. Moon, representations of the, 111. Mosaic, feather, Aztecan, 220; feath- er, Tarascan, 221; masks and ceremonial objects, 82. Mosquito Indians, 41. Mound, artificial, at Copan, 70; pyramidal developed at end of archaic period, 57. Mounds, at Atzeapotzalco, 44; foun- dation for temples, 70; Tarascan, 221; Zapotecan, 144. Mountains, Mexico and America, 14-16. Music, Aztecan, 216-218. © Musical instruments, Aztecan, 217— 218. Mythology, Aztecan, 184, 195, 205, 209-210; Mayan and Aztecan, 205. Myths, cosmogonic, 209-210. Central Nahuan, linguistic stock, distribution of, 32; tribes, led in development of archaic art, 43. INDEX Naranjo, 69, 127, 133. Negative painting, 167-168. Nezahualcoyotl, 216. Nose form, Indians of Mexico and Central America, 42. Noserings, on archaic figurines, 53. Notation system, Mayan, 97, 103- 107. Numbers,